Charity advertising: A literature review and research agenda

The authors present an overview of the academic literature on charity advertising. Through systematically reviewing 63 empirical studies on charity advertising, a synthesis of the body of work is framed in a general model. Predominant antecedents in the charity advertising literature include various appeal tactics and victim portrayals. Research streams on moderators and mediators include various ad characteristics and audience characteristics. The audience's intentions to donate were the most used outcome variable. Recommendations for continuing theoretical advancement in the field are presented. Managerial implications are also presented. This literature review contributes a knowledge base to guide future charity advertising research.     

The impact of guilt and shame in charity advertising: The role of self-construal

Following the cognitive functional model in persuasive communication and the self-construal theory, this two-study design project examines the impact of guilt and shame in charity advertising. Study 1 was a survey that investigated the extent to which anticipatory guilt and shame operate in affecting people's purchase intention relating to a product with social causes. Study 2 was an experiment that examined the impact of guilt versus shame appeals in processing charity advertising messages. The role of self-construal was examined in both studies. Results indicated that both the anticipatory guilt and ad-induced guilt were positively connected with behavioral intentions. People with higher interdependent self-construal were more prone to charitable behaviors. The anticipatory shame was positively connected with behavioral intention, whereas the ad-induced shame was not. In addition, self-construal negatively moderated the effect of shame, such that the impact of anticipatory shame and shame arousal on behavioral intentions were more pronounced among people with higher independent self-construal.     

Probabilities of election outcomes with two parameters: The relative impact of unifying and polarizing candidates

Consider an election on three candidates for n voters with complete and transitive preference rankings on the candidates. Let k (r) denote the minimum total number of last (middle) position rankings for each of the three candidates. If k is close to zero, some candidate is seldom disliked and is a unifying candidate. If r is close to zero, some candidate is always either liked or disliked and is a polarizing candidate. A procedure is developed to obtain representations for conditional probabilities of election outcomes, when parameters like k or r are specified. Representations are obtained for the conditional probability that a pairwise majority rule winner, or PMRW, exists, given k and given r. Results show significant differences in the impact that unifying and polarizing candidates have on the probability that a PMRW exists. Received: 19 February 2004, Accepted: 29 September 2005 JEL Classification: D7 A preliminary version of this paper was presented at the Bosphorus Workshop on Economic Design and at the Abdus Salam International Center for Theoretical Physics. Comments from participants at both presentations were very helpful in developing the final version of the paper.     

On the application of the Minkowski-Farkas theorem to sampling designs

In the paper, we consider the following problem: Let {π_k} be a sequence satisfying 0π_kΣ1 (k=1,…, N) and π=n.Tben, is there an unordered sampling design such that, for each k=1,…N, the inclusion probability of unit k is equal to π? It is shown that it can be solved by the straightforward application of the Minkowski-Farkas theorem.     

A fixed sample size selection procedure for negative binomial populations

Summary A fixed sample size procedure for selecting the ‘best’ ofk negative binomial populations is developed. Selection is made in such a way that the probability of correct selection is at leastP* whenever the distance between the probabilities of success is at leastδ*. The exponentr is assumed to be known and the same for all populations. Extensive computer calculations* were employed to obtain the exact least favorable configuration. The smallest sample sizes needed to meet specifications (P*,δ*) are tabulated forr=1 (1)5;δ*=0.05 (0.05) 0.55 andP*=0.75, 0.80, 0.90, 0.95, 0.98, 0.99 involvingk=3 (1) 6, 8, 10 populations. All the computations were carried out on the Alabama Supercomputer. Part of this work was completed when the authors were at the Department of Statistics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078.     

Medium-sized charities and their advertising agencies: An exploratory investigation

Respondents in 103 medium-sized charities completed a mail questionnaire designed to explore the nature of the relationships between these charities and their advertising agencies. It emerged that some, but not all, of the factors known to influence interactions between agencies and their commercial clients were equally relevant within the charity sector. Variables crucial to charity clients' levels of satisfaction with their advertising agencies included agency provision of functional assistance with media planning and the creative design of advertisements, trust and an agency's willingness to act as a member of its client's team, and the ability to generate new ideas. Additionally, an agency's experience of work within the charity sector and its empathy with charitable aims, ideals and philosophies were key determinants of satisfaction ratings. Assistance with market research and public relations and an agency's ability to offer extensive ancillary services did not appear to exert significant influence.     

Bayesian approach to prediction in the presence of outliers for Weibull distribution

The predictive distribution of ther-th order statistics is obtained for the future sample based on the original sample from Weibull distribution in the presence ofk outliers. Next, in the presence ofk outliers two sample case is considered where prediction can be on ther ₂-th order statistics in the second sample based on ther ₁-th order statistics in the first sample. Finally, extension top-sample case is made for a particular case of predicting minimum in thep-th sample based on minimum in earlier samples. An illustration is provided with simulated samples where minimum is actually predicted in one and two sample cases.     

Optimum allocation in Bayesian stratified two-phase sampling when there arem-attributes

The problem of optimally allocating a sample amongk-strata at the second phase of a two-phase sampling procedure when the sampling is for proportion has been discussed byNewbold [1971] and then by the author [Khan, 1972].This paper deals with optimum allocation of the sample amongk-strata at the second phase of a two-phase sampling procedure, when the sampling is form-attributes. The problem is to estimate the proportion of each attribute in the population. Here (m–1) dimensional Dirichlet distribution is taken as the prior distribution.     

Learning curves—an axiomatic approach

A systematic mathematical analysis of learning curves is presented. It is shown that while a learning curve with learning factor k does necessarily satisfy the functional equation f(2x) = kf(x), this equation admits numerous other analytic, convex solutions as well so that it cannot be used to uniquely characterize learning curves. Rather, it is shown that a pair of functional equations f(rx) = kf(x) and f(sx) = jf(x) where rⁿ ≠ s^m for any positive integers n and m suffice to uniquely determine the learning curve; compatibility of the two equations requires that log_rk = log_sj or there will be no learning curve satisfying the pair of equations. Two classes of almost learning curves are generated and studied by means of suitable perturbation terms in the differential equation y = by/x of the true or standard learning curve and these curves are applied to describe data not exhibiting exact learning-curve behavior. Finally the concept of average marginal hours or cost is introduced and its behavior is found to also exhibit the learning-curve phenomenon except for an initial deviation.     

On maximum likelihood prediction based on Type II doubly censored exponential data

In this paper, the maximum likelihood predictor (MLP) of the kth ordered observation, t _k, in a sample of size n from a two-parameter exponential distribution as well as the predictive maximum likelihood estimators (PMLE's) of the location and scale parameters, θ and β, based on the observed values t _r, …, t _s (1≤r≤s<k≤n), are obtained in closed forms, contrary to the belief they cannot be so expressed. When θ is known, however, the PMLE of β and MLP of t _k do not admit explicit expressions. It is shown here that they exist and are unique; sharp lower and upper bounds are also provided. The derived predictors and estimators are reasonable and also have good asymptotic properties. As applications, the total duration time in a life test and the failure time of a k-out-of-n system may be predicted. Finally, an illustrative example is included. Received: August 1999     

A proof of a relationship between the generalized variances for associated autoregressive and moving average processes

Summary In this paper we give a simple proof of the result that, for any integer,r, given two processes of orderr, one autoregressive and the other moving average but both with the same parameters, then the generalized variance of all ordersk2r, for the autoregressive process, is exactly equal to the infinite order generalized variance for the moving average process.     

A generalization that makes useful the dorfman–steiner theorem with respect to advertising

Dorfman and Steiner's theorem is trivial with respect to advertising because it deals with only one period. It simply says that a firm should stop with that volume of advertising at which an additional dollar of advertising just produces an additional dollar of net revenue. This note generalizes the theorem to the meaningful multi-period situation in which the effect of advertising is lagged. The optimizing decision rule is to advertise up to the point at which f′(A_t) = 1 - bd, where A stands for advertising, b for the customer-rentention factor, and d for the cost-of capital discount factor.     

The antecedents of charity trust and its influence on charity supportive behavior

This study develops and tests a model that evaluates eight antecedents of charity trust and its influence on volunteering and donating. Secondary data from a national Australian survey (N = 1,377) was collected and data was analyzed using partial least square path analysis. Key findings include identifying individual and organizational antecedents of charity trust and its influence on charity supportive behavior. Results show that organizational transparency is a very strong antecedent, followed by the individual awareness level of an individual towards the organization. We also examined the effect of gender as a moderating influence but did not find a significant effect. We conclude with managerial implications and areas for future research.     

Combining information for prediction in linear regression

This article deals with the prediction problem in linear regression where the measurements are obtained using k different devices or collected from k different independent sources. For the case of k=2, a Graybill-Deal type combined estimtor for the regression parameters is shown to dominate the individual least squares estimators under the covariance criterion. Two predictors ŷ _c and ŷ _p are proposed. ŷ _c is based on a combined estimator of the regression coefficient vector, and ŷ _p is obtained by combining the individual predictors from different models. Prediction mean square errors of both predictors are derived. It is shown that the predictor ŷ _p is better than the individual predictors for k≥2 and the predictor ŷ _c is better than the individual predictors for k=2. Numerical comparison between ŷ _c and ŷ _p shows that the former is superior to the latter for the case k=2.     

‘The giving layer of the internet’: A critical history of GoFundMe's reputation management,platform governance,and communication strategies in capturing peer-to-peer and charitable giving markets

GoFundMe, founded in 2010, has already profoundly impacted giving practices, introducing many laypersons to the empowering potentials and user-friendly affordances of peer-to-peer fundraising. Overall, GoFundMe's extraordinary success as a for-profit company in traditionally nonprofit charitable giving markets can be attributed to: normalizing their platform as the go-to destination for people seeking help; tasking the beneficiaries themselves with crafting appeals for support; restricting forms of support to money; deferring responsibility to donors to assess the legitimacy of appeals; and dominating the market by acquiring competitors and pursuing growth wherever possible. No charity could plausibly adopt such an operating model and GoFundMe's lean, hands-off, self-policing approach has attracted sharp criticism over the years. Nonetheless, the company has not humbly reined in their ambition but expanded it even further. This paper outlines three broad phases through which GoFundMe has defended their capture of “the giving layer of the internet.” Initially, GoFundMe espoused ideals of utopian disruption and soteriological solutionism, selling their platform as a “take-action button” and user-friendly means of empowering everyday citizens to improve the lives of others. Later, after attracting more divisive causes and criticisms of its revenue model, GoFundMe adopted forms of reputational repair and attempted neutrality, insisting that their for-profit platform could be accommodative to all worldviews and persons willing to embrace “positive precarization.” More recently, as “neutral” stances became untenable and fundraising success rates increasingly grim, GoFundMe pivoted toward strategies of state critique and civic capture. Specifically, GoFundMe have: more pointedly highlighted state failures; actively aligned themselves with social movements; shifted away from relying solely on peer-to-peer fundraising; and instead partnered more with established nonprofits. However, as GoFundMe's expansion inevitably means becoming entangled in sensitive political matters, the company's ambition to become the key intermediary in all charitable giving is facing acute challenges.     

Characterizations of distributions via linearity of regression of generalized order statistics

Let X (r, n, m, k), 1 r n, denote generalized order statistics based on an absolutely continuous distribution function F. We characterize all distribution functions F for which the following linearity of regression holds E(X(r+l,n,m,k) | X(r,n,m,k))=aX(r,n,m,k)+b.We show that only exponential, Pareto and power distributions satisfy this equation. Using this result one can obtain characterizations of exponential, Pareto and power distributions in terms of sequential order statistics, Pfeifers records and progressive type II censored order statistics. Received July 2001/Revised August 2002     

Berry-Esseen-type inequality for a special class of distributions

LetQ be the distribution of the suitably normalized sum of i. i. d.k-dimensional random vectors (k2) and letf be a measurable real valued function of the formf(z ₁,...,z _k )=z ₁+r(z ₂,...,z _k ), where the measurable functionr fulfills certain regularity conditions. A Berry-Esseen-type inequality is derived for the one-dimensional distributionP=Qf ^–1.     

Inequalities compared

We know that the partial means m_rof a sequence of i.i.d. standardized random variables tend to 0 with probability 1. If we want P{m_k≥εfor some k ≥r}≤δ for given positive ε and δ, how large should we take r? Several (strong) inequalities for the distribution of partial sums providing an answer to this question can be found in the literature (Hájek -Rényi Robbins , Khan ). Furthermore there exist wellknown (weak) inequalities (Bienaymé -Chebyshev , Bernstein , Okamoto ) that give us values of rfor which P{m_r≥ε}≤δ. We compare these inequalities and illustrate them with numerical results for a fixed choice ofε and δ. After a general survey and introduction in section 1, the normal and the binomial distribution are considered in more detail in the sections 2 and 3, while in section 4 it is shown that the strong inequality essentially due to Robbins can give an inferior result for particular distributions.     

Young Americans' ethnic identity toward disaster advertising: The effects of disaster location and message types

The purpose of this study is to examine young American donors' perspectives toward disaster ad messages. Attitude toward helping others, social responsibility, ethnic identity on donation behavior, attitude toward ad, and advertising effectiveness were examined using 2 experimental variables (disaster location and message types). The findings explain that the constructs are positively related to each other and the 2 experimental variables significantly influence young Americans' attitudes toward ads and advertising effectiveness. In addition, young Americans expressed stronger feelings concerning attitude toward charity ads, and a higher level of advertising effectiveness was demonstrated when the disaster occurred domestically. Further, emotional messages were considered more persuasive than factual messages. As managerial suggestions, when charities work for domestic disasters, emphasizing patriotism and an emotional message can increase the positive attitude toward ads and advertising effectiveness. On the contrary, when charities work for international disasters, the messages should focus on diminishing distinctions between in‐group and out‐group perceptions.     

Feedback orientation: A meta-analysis

Feedback orientation reflects an individual difference in one's receptivity to feedback. We present the results of a meta-analysis of the feedback orientation literature. Based on k = 46 independent samples, representing n = 12,478 workers, meta-analytic results suggest that feedback orientation is positively related to learning goal orientation (r_c = 0.39), job satisfaction (r_c = 0.33), work performance (r_c = 0.35), and feedback seeking (r_c = 0.43). Meta-analytic regression and dominance analysis was used to tease apart how related informal feedback constructs (i.e., feedback seeking, feedback environment, & feedback orientation) aid in the prediction of outcomes, above and beyond two established predictors of job attitudes and work performance: role clarity and leader-member exchange. We also present an interactive exploratory data analysis tool to aid in developing future research questions regarding the connection between informal feedback constructs and work outcomes.