Are we nice(r) to nice(r) people?—An experimental analysis

We experimentally investigate whether individuals can reliably detect cooperators (the nice(r) people) in an anonymous decision environment involving “connected games.” Participants can condition their choices in an asymmetric prisoners’ dilemma and a trust game on past individual (their partner’s donation share to a self-selected charity) and social (whether their partner belongs to a group with high or low average donations) information. Thus, the two measures of niceness are the individual donation share in the donation task, and the cooperativeness of one’s choice in the two games. We find that high donors achieve a higher-than-average expected payoff by cooperating predominantly with other high donors. Group affiliation proved to be irrelevant. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at . JEL Classification C91, C72, D3     

“Tell me what you need”: signaling with limited resources

We study the project allocation mechanisms trade-off between minimizing the waste of resources in the application process and maximizing the match of needs and projects when the recipient’s needs and resources are private information. We propose a signaling mechanism where the set of signals available to each agent is constrained by his capacity and by his truthful need of the project. The principal can control, at a given cost, the agent’s application cost and the utility of receiving the project by non-needy agents. Our findings suggest that there exists a threshold in the principal’s budget such that for smaller budgets, all instruments are used in the optimal mechanism, while for bigger budgets the optimal application complexity is independent of the budget and waste of resources is a decreasing share of the resources available.     

Searching for the sunk cost fallacy

We seek to isolate in the laboratory factors that encourage and discourage the sunk cost fallacy. Subjects play a computer game in which they decide whether to keep digging for treasure on an island or to sink a cost (which will turn out to be either high or low) to move to another island. The research hypothesis is that subjects will stay longer on islands that were more costly to find. Eleven treatment variables are considered, e.g. alternative visual displays, whether the treasure value of an island is shown on arrival or discovered by trial and error, and alternative parameters for sunk costs. The data reveal a surprisingly small sunk cost effect that is generally insensitive to the proposed psychological drivers. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at . Jel Classification C91, D11     

公共建设项目中合同策略及其关系行为测量研究

公共建设项目合同策略的制定往往忽视了关系治理对承包人机会主义行为的抑制作用,造成合同策略侧重于单一的控制功能,不利于合同的事后履约。根据项目治理理论,项目缔约全过程中契约治理与关系治理存在交互作用,因而,合同策略必然包含两者间的互动关系。首先通过扎根分析,明确了公共建设项目合同策略是一个组合型构念,包括承包人选择、合同策略重点及防范问题方式3个维度;然后,利用关系行为量表,对合同策略中3个维度对应的关系行为进行测量,明确各参与方在合同缔约各阶段采取的具体关系行为;最后,结合访谈数据对关系行为测量结果进行分析。结果发现：在缔约全过程中,承包人对待关系行为始终处于积极状态,业主方采取关系行为则存在一定的障碍。研究结果为公共建设项目关系治理的使用提供了依据,同时也为各参与方采取合理的关系行为提供指导。     

非对称信息条件下最优承包合同的研究

承发包双方在合同变更中的机会主义和信息的非对称性,产生了“敲竹杠”和投资过小现象以及隐藏信息的道德风险问题。运用委托-代理理论建立了非对称信息条件下的最优承包合同模型,对上述问题进行了研究。证明在承包商隐藏信息务件下,最优承包合同将使承包商的专用投资水平下降、工程项目工期延长、业主效用降低。     

Testing subgame perfection apart from fairness in ultimatum games

We present an experiment designed to separate the two commonplace explanations for behavior in ultimatum games—subjects’ concern for fairness versus the failure of subgame perfection as an equilibrium refinement. We employ a tournament structure of the bargaining interaction to eliminate the potential for fairness to influence behavior. Comparing the results of the tournament game with two control treatments affords us a clean test of subgame perfection as well as a measure fairness-induced play. We find after 10 iterations of play that about half of all non-subgame-perfect demands are due to fairness, and the rest to imperfect learning. However, as suggested by models of learning, we also confirm that the ultimatum game presents an especially difficult environment for learning subgame perfection. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at . JEL Classification C91, D64, J52     

“Si él lo necesita”: Gypsy fairness in Vallecas

“Si él lo necesita” (if he really needs it) was the most common argument given by the subjects who accepted the zero offer in the ultimatum game (strategy method) during experiments conducted among illiterate (adult) gypsies in Vallecas, Madrid. Interestingly the acceptance of the zero offer was not a rare case but, in contrast, was the modal value. This is even more remarkable if we consider that the 97% of the subjects proposed the equal split. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10683-006-9126-0. JEL Classification D63 · D64 · C93 · J15     

PUBLIC VERSUS PRIVATE DELIVERY OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE SERVICES: THE CASE OF NORTH CAROLINA

This paper examines the effects of different institutional arrangements and characteristics on cost savings, efficiency gains, and productivity of delivering municipal solid waste services. A cost function approach is employed, and North Carolina municipal data for three years (1997, 2001, and 2003) are used for the analysis. Empirical findings indicate that there is no significant difference in cost savings between public delivery and private contractor delivery of solid waste services, a finding similar to those of other recent studies. There are three possible reasons for this. First, the threat of competition and contracting out might have led to cost savings in the cases of public delivery. Second, there might be a lack of competition because a few large private contractors have been able to win follow‐on contracts over the years. Third, there might be substantial transaction costs arising as the result of private contracting. (JEL H40, H83, Q53)     

The impact of endowment heterogeneity and origin on contributions in best-shot public good games

Economists and psychologists have long argued the origin of wealth influences individual behavior. In a previous study (Cherry et al., 2005), we found the origin of endowment did not significantly affect behavior in linear public good games with summation contribution technology. In such games, however, both Nash behavior (everybody gives nothing) and social optimal behavior (everybody gives the entire endowment) call for symmetric levels of contributions. Results from this new study indicate that the origin of wealth might matter in more asymmetric situations, such as in a best-shot public good game with heterogeneous groups. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at . JEL Classification C72, C92, H41     

园林工程EPC模式下总承包商的风险与 控制——以深圳前海环境和绿化双提升工程为例

近年来,EPC模式成为园林工程总承包中的一种主 流建设管理模式,与传统的园林建设管理模式相比,实现了设 计、采购、施工一体化运作,具有效率高、项目进度控制全面 等明显优势,被用于工期短、难度大的重点园林工程建设管理 模式。同时,由于园林工程存在着园林建材种类多、标准化 程度低、植物特异性广,以及易受季节性影响等因素,园林 EPC项目建设过程更具复杂性和不定性,使得总承包商存在 的经营风险较大。以深圳前海自贸合作区环境和绿化双提升工 程为例,探讨园林工程EPC模式下总承包商所面临的风险和 控制思路     

Experimental internet auctions with random information retrieval

We run an experiment where 97 subjects could retrieve records of completed past auctions before placing their bids in current one-bid, two-bid, and auction-selection games. Each subject was asked to participate in 3 current auctions; but could retrieve up to 60 records of completed (past) auctions. The results reveal a positive relation between the payoffs earned by the subjects and their history-inspection effort. Subjects act as if responding to the average bidding-ratios of the winners in the samples that they have retrieved. They apply intuitive signal-dependent stopping rules like “sample until observing a winner-value close to my won” or “find a close winner-value and try one more history” when sampling the databases. History-inspection directs bidders with relatively high private-valuations to moderate bidding which increases their realized payoffs. (JEL C9 D4 D8) Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at . JEL Classification C93, D44, D83     

The rise of cooperation in correlated matching prisoners dilemma: An experiment

Recently, there has been a Renaissance for multi-level selection models to explain the persistence of unselfish behavior in social dilemmas, in which assortative/correlated matching plays an important role. In the current study of a multi-round prisoners’ dilemma experiment, we introduce two correlated matching procedures that match subjects with similar action histories together. We discover significant treatment effects, compared to the control procedure of random matching. Particularly with the weighted history matching procedure we find bifurcations regarding group outcomes. Some groups converge to the all-defection equilibrium even more pronouncedly than the control groups do, while other groups generate much higher rate of cooperation, which is also associated with higher relative reward for a typical cooperative action. All in all, the data show that cooperation does have a much better chance to persist in a correlated/assortative-matching environment, as predicted in the literature. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at . JEL Classification B52, C91, D74     

Unstructuring incompetence: problems of contracting, trust and the development of the channel tunnel

This paper examines aspects of the contractual relationship between the principal actors in the construction of the Channel Tunnel. Based on interviews with key participants and a wealth of public and semi-public documentary data, the paper presents a case study illustrating the interconnect-edness of contractual form, process and trust, and the management and performance of complex, large-scale technological projects. Theoretically, the research is informed by, a cross-disciplinary approach, taking in contributions to the management of complexig and interrfirm relationships associated with the markets and hierarchies debate in economics and in organization theory, and research on the management of scale from the technology policy and project management literatures. More specifically, the paper builds upon Stinchcombe's findings that:(a) contrary to the Williamsonian view contracts between firms are employed in the practice of administering complex undertakings (i.e. rather than 'hierarchy' but (b) to enable such contracting to perform effectively, 'hierarchical'features are devised by the parties in a bid to 'structure' their joint 'incompetence' at managing the unknowns and unknowables of complex projects, and of selecting appropriate contract forms, In the case of the Channel Tunnel development, the nature of the various contractual arrangements is described. An evaluation of the extent and qua& of hierarchical aspects o f the contractual relationship between Eurotunnel, TML (the principal constructing contractor), financial, governmental and other organizations is conducted. This is carried out in terms of the ease or diffculty experienced in managing changes in design specfication, monitoring work that was executed or resoluing disputes over the interpretation of contractor performance criteria, for example. Ultimately, the paper points up the extent to which differing expecta-tions from the project, adversarial contractual relations and lack of trust between the client and the main contractor (against a background of 'fast track development' contributed to problems of cost-effectively designing, constructing and coordinating Channel Tunnel technology. The conclusions serve to indicate how and why hierarchical elements of contracts may exacerbate 'incompetence' in the management of complex or large-scale technology projects, rather than 'structure' it, to the detriment Of overall project performance.     

The Impact of Biotechnology Pervasiveness and User Heterogeneity on the Organization of Public Sector Research

This paper examines aspects of the contractual relationship between the principal actors in the construction of the Channel Tunnel. Based on interviews with key participants and a wealth of public and semi-public documentary data, the paper presents a case study illustrating the interconnect-edness of contractual form, process and trust, and the management and performance of complex, large-scale technological projects. Theoretically, the research is informed by, a cross-disciplinary approach, taking in contributions to the management of complexig and interrfirm relationships associated with the markets and hierarchies debate in economics and in organization theory, and research on the management of scale from the technology policy and project management literatures. More specifically, the paper builds upon Stinchcombe's findings that:(a) contrary to the Williamsonian view contracts between firms are employed in the practice of administering complex undertakings (i.e. rather than ‘hierarchy’ but (b) to enable such contracting to perform effectively, ‘hierarchical’features are devised by the parties in a bid to ‘structure’ their joint ‘incompetence’ at managing the unknowns and unknowables of complex projects, and of selecting appropriate contract forms, In the case of the Channel Tunnel development, the nature of the various contractual arrangements is described. An evaluation of the extent and qua&; of hierarchical aspects o f the contractual relationship between Eurotunnel, TML (the principal constructing contractor), financial, governmental and other organizations is conducted. This is carried out in terms of the ease or diffculty experienced in managing changes in design specfication, monitoring work that was executed or resoluing disputes over the interpretation of contractor performance criteria, for example. Ultimately, the paper points up the extent to which differing expecta-tions from the project, adversarial contractual relations and lack of trust between the client and the main contractor (against a background of ‘fast track development’ contributed to problems of cost-effectively designing, constructing and coordinating Channel Tunnel technology. The conclusions serve to indicate how and why hierarchical elements of contracts may exacerbate ‘incompetence’ in the management of complex or large-scale technology projects, rather than ‘structure’ it, to the detriment Of overall project performance.     

Outsourcing via reverse auction with a built-in menu of change orders

Many firms invent and design products while outsourcing their production to independent contractors. We consider a dominant strategy mechanism that selects a contractor using a reverse auction, combined with a menu of permitted change orders from which the contractor can choose after updated cost information has become available. That mechanism maximizes the gain from trade, allows the firm to extract the second highest surplus, and induces the contractor to make efficient adjustments to output after updated cost information has emerged.     

Misperceiving the value of information in predicting the performance of others

Economic models typically allow for “free disposal” or “reversibility” of information, which implies non-negative value. Building on previous research on the “curse of knowledge” we explore situations where this might not be so. In three experiments, we document situations in which participants place positive value on information in attempting to predict the performance of uninformed others, even when acquiring that information diminishes their earnings. In the first experiment, a majority of participants choose to hire informed—rather than uninformed—agents, leading to lower earnings. In the second experiment, a significant number of participants pay for information—the solution to a puzzle—that hurts their ability to predict how many others will solve the puzzle. In the third experiment, we find that the effect is reduced with experience and feedback on the actual performance to be predicted. We discuss implications of our results for the role of information and informed decision making in economic situations. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10683-006-9128-y. JEL Classification C91, D83     

Choosing wisely: the natural multi-bidding mechanism

Pérez-Castrillo and Wettstein (Am Econ Rev 92:1577–1587, 2002) propose a multi-bidding mechanism to determine a winner from a set of possible objects. Each agent announces a vector of bids and a project, which is used as a tie-breaking rule for the case where several aggregate bids finish first in the bidding. We show that removing the (non-intuitive) project announcement and using instead the projects which received some agent’s highest bid to break ties, severely hinders the performance of the mechanism. Specifically, a Nash Equilibrium exists only if there are at least two individually optimal projects and all individually optimal projects are efficient. I am grateful to an anonymous referee for his detailed suggestions and comments and to the SSHRC (Canada) for financial support.     

工期投机行为对投标的影响研究

成本加工期双因素投标方式中,承包商的最优报价并非成本最低时的报价,工期也并非成本最低时的工期,最优报价较最低价略有提高,工期则略有缩短。另一方面,由于业主要严格控制建设时间,必然导致成本较正常水平上升,这就为承包商的投机性投标行为提供了可能性。     

Moral Hazard and Adverse Selection in Procurement Contracting

A model of procurement contracting is developed and tested in laboratory experiments. Market performance results are presented for both fixed-price and cost-sharing contracts. Contracts are awarded with first-price sealed-bid or second-price sealed-bid auctions. The environment contains post-auction cost uncertainty and opportunity for unmonitored effort in contract cost reduction. Cost-sharing contracts are found to reduce procurement expense but also to be inefficient because of their induced moral hazard waste and cost overruns.Journal of Economic LiteratureClassification Numbers: C72, C92, D44, D61, D82, H57, L14.     

Observability and overcoming coordination failure in organizations: An experimental study

Motivated by problems of coordination failure in organizations, we examine how overcoming coordination failure and maintaining coordination depend on the ability of individuals to observe others’ choices. Subjects’ payoffs depend on coordinating at high effort levels in a weak-link game. Treatments vary along two dimensions. First, subjects either start with low financial incentives for coordination, which typically leads to coordination failure, and then are switched to higher incentives or start with high incentives, which usually yield effective coordination, and are switched to low incentives. Second, as the key treatment variable, subjects either observe the effort levels chosen by all individuals in their experimental group (full feedback) or observe only the minimum effort (limited feedback). We find three primary results: (1) When starting from coordination failure the use of full feedback improves subjects’ ability to overcome coordination failure, (2) When starting with good coordination the use of full feedback has no effect on subjects’ ability to avoid slipping into coordination failure, and (3) History-dependence, defined as dependence of current effort levels on past incentives, is strengthened by the use of full feedback. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at . JEL Classification C92, D23, J31, L23, M52