On the Credibility Determinants of a Quality Label: a Quasi-Natural Experiment Using the Example of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Stiftung Warentest</Emphasis>

In 2013, Stiftung Warentest, which is one of the most important consumer organizations in Germany, tested hazelnut chocolate for their leading magazine called test. The hazelnut chocolate of Ritter Sport, which is a high-quality producer of chocolate in Germany, failed the test and received the grade “unsatisfactory.” Stiftung Warentest accused Ritter Sport of labelling an artificial flavouring as a natural flavouring. Ritter Sport rejected the accusation, went to court, and won the trial. Stiftung Warentest had to withdraw the issue in question of test magazine. The affair received broad media coverage from December 2013 to September 2014. Using the case Ritter Sport versus Stiftung Warentest, it is analysed whether negative headlines really undermine the credibility of a quality label by examining Stiftung Warentest and their quality label called test. In addition, it is examined what can be done to restore or, more generally, increase the credibility of a quality label. Based on a quasi-natural experiment, it is found that the negative headlines regarding Stiftung Warentest have undermined the credibility of the test label. It is also found that the credibility of the test label can be increased by providing reference values to the tests, strengthening the independence of Stiftung Warentest, and using laboratory methods for the tests. For the most part, the same holds true for any quality label. High-quality producers, quality-conscious consumers, and the awarding organization of the quality label can benefit from an increased credibility of a quality label.     

The Relation Between Policies Concerning Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Philosophical Moral Theories – An Empirical Investigation

This article examines the relation between policies concerning Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and philosophical moral theories. The objective is to determine which moral theories form the basis for CSR policies. Are they based on ethical egoism, libertarianism, utilitarianism or some kind of common-sense morality? In order to address this issue, I conducted an empirical investigation examining the relation between moral theories and CSR policies, in companies engaged in CSR. Based on the empirical data I collected, I start by suggesting some normative arguments used by the respondents. Secondly, I suggest that these moral arguments implicitly rely on some specific moral principles, which I characterise. Thirdly, on the basis of these moral principles, I suggest the moral theories upon which the CSR policies are built. Previous empirical studies examining the relation between philosophical moral theories and the ethical content of business activities have mainly concentrated on the ethical decision-making of managers. Some of the most prominent investigations in that regard propose that managers mainly act in accordance with utilitarian moral theory (Fritzsche, D. J. and H. Becker: 1984, Academy of Management Journal 27(1), 166–175; Premeaux, S. and W. Mony: 1993, Journal of Business Ethics 12, 349–357; Premeaux, S.: 2004, Journal of Business Ethics 52, 269–278). I conclude that CSR policies are not based on utilitarian thinking, but instead, on some kind of common-sense morality. The ethical foundation of companies engaged in CSR, thus, does not mirror the ethical foundation of managers.     

Is Corporate Responsibility Converging? A Comparison of Corporate Responsibility Reporting in the USA,UK, Australia,and Germany

Corporate social reporting, while not mandatory in most countries, has been adopted by many large companies around the world and there are now a variety of competing global standards for non-financial reporting, such as the Global Reporting Initiative and the UN Global Compact. However, while some companies (e.g., Henkel, BHP, Johnson and Johnson) have a long standing tradition in reporting non-financial information, other companies provide only limited information, or in some cases, no information at all. Previous studies have suggested that there are, country and industry-specific, differences in the extent of CSR reports (e.g., Kolk et al.: 2001, Business Strategy and the Environment 10, 15–28; Kolk: 2005, Management International Review 45, 145–166; Maignan and Ralston: 2002, Journal of International Business Studies 33(3), 497–514). However, findings are inconclusive or contradictory and it is often difficult to compare previous studies owing to the idiosyncratic methods used in each study (Graafland et al.: 2004, Journal of Business Ethics 53, 137–152). Furthermore, previous studies have relied mainly on simple measures, such as word counts and page counts of reports, to compare the extent of reporting that may not capture significant differences in the content of the reports. In this article, we seek to overcome some of these deficiencies by using textual analysis software and a more robust statistical method to more objectively and reliably compare the CSR reports of firms in different industries and countries. We examine a sample of leading companies in four countries (US, UK, Australia, and Germany) and test whether or not membership of the Global Compact makes a difference to CSR reporting and is overcoming industry and country specific factors that limit standardization. We conclude that GlobalCompact membership is having an effect only in certain areas of CSR reporting, related to the environment and workers, and that businesses from different countries vary significantly in the extent to which they promote CSR and the CSR issues that they choose to emphasize in their reports. These country differences are argued to be related to the different institutional arrangements in each country.     

Why and How Does Social Responsibility Differ Among SMEs? A Social Capital Systemic Approach

Research suggests that organizational justice (procedural, distributive, and interactional justice) has important impacts on work-related attitudes and behaviors, such as organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). In this article, we explore the extent to which individualism moderates the relationship between organizational justice and OCB (organizational obedience, participation, and loyalty) among citizens in Kyrgyzstan. We make additional contributions to the literature because we know very little about these constructs in this former Soviet Union country, Kyrgyzstan, an under-researched and under-represented region of the world. Results of our data collected from 402 managers and employees in Kyrgyzstan offer the following new discoveries. All three justice constructs are related to OCB. Individualism moderates only the distributive and interactive justice to OCB relationships. We develop an intricate theory with provocative implications: Procedural justice produces obedience. For “individualists,” interactional justice inspires loyalty and, interestingly, distributive justice “can only buy” participation, but “can’t buy” loyalty. Therefore, for individualists, interactional justice outweighs distributive justice for organizational loyalty. Based on Kyrgyz citizens’ justice, OCB, and individualism, our theory reveals novel insights regarding culture, money attitude, and intrinsic motivation and provides critical and practical implications to the field of business ethics.     

An Inquiry into the Study of Corporate Codes of Ethics

This paper takes its point of departure in an article by Stevens [Stevens, B.: 1994, Journal of Business Ethics 54, 163–171], in which she identified a lack of knowledge regarding how corporate codes of ethics are communicated and affect behavior in organizations. Taking heed of this suggested gap, we review studies on corporate codes of ethics with an empirical content, published since 1994. The conclusion of the review is that we still lack knowledge on how codes work, how they are communicated and how they are transformed inside organizations. Stevens’ plea could even be extended, arguing that the knowledge gap might be of even more significance than in the mid-1990s. Some directions for how this situation can be approached in future studies are outlined in the paper.     

Age and entrepreneurship: nuances from entrepreneur types and generation effects

The literature on the relationship between age and entrepreneurship has been inconclusive. This study for the first time examines this relationship by extending the occupational choice literature to eight entrepreneur types and four generational modification effects in the USA. Multilevel mixed-effect logistic regression models are estimated to examine the age effects in entrepreneur type propensities. Generational modification effects are compared for the same ages across neighboring generations by hierarchical age-period-cohort (HAPC) models. We find that entrepreneurial propensity rises with age until around 80. The propensity of novice (versus non-novice) and unincorporated (versus incorporated) entrepreneurs has a U-shaped age trend dipping around age 60, while the propensity of full-time (versus part-time) declines since age 30s. The propensity of incorporated (versus unincorporated) entrepreneurs declines from ages 44 to 51 for Gen-Xers, but not for Boomers; this propensity also declines faster for Boomers than for Traditionalists from ages 63 to 70.     

Individual Competencies for Corporate Social Responsibility: A Literature and Practice Perspective

Because corporate social responsibility (CSR) can be beneficial to both companies and its stakeholders, interest in factors that support CSR performance has grown in recent years. A thorough integration of CSR in core business processes is particularly important for achieving effective long-term CSR practices. Here, we explored the individual CSR-related competencies that support CSR implementation in a corporate context. First, a systematic literature review was performed in which relevant scientific articles were identified and analyzed. Next, 28 CSR directors and managers were interviewed. The literature review complemented with interview data resulted in the following eight distinct CSR-related competencies: (1)Anticipating CSR challenges; (2) Understanding CSR-relevant systems and subsystems; (3) Understanding CSR-relevant standards; (4) CSR management competencies, including (4a) Leading CSR programs, (4b) Managing CSR programs, and (4c) Identifying and realizing CSR-related business opportunities; (5) Realizing CSR-supportive interpersonal processes; (6) Employing CSR-supportive personal characteristics and attitudes; (7) Personal value-driven competencies, including (7a) Ethical normative competencies, (7b) Balancing personal ethical values and business objectives, and (7c) Realizing self-regulated CSR-related behaviors and active involvement; and (8) Reflecting on personal CSR views and experiences. Based on these results, implications for further research on this topic, as well as implications for practitioners, are discussed.     

Public and Private Challenges of an Aging U.S. Population

The challenges posed by the aging of the U.S. population for business and public policy are vast. They are amplified particularly by:??Slow increase of incomes—and therefore low private savings—for those at the bottom of the pay distribution.??Cutbacks in employee health-care insurance and defined benefit pension plans.??Unsustainability of Social Security and Medicare as currently configured.This paper spells out these challenges and discusses how they can be addressed. Of particular importance are some combination of enhanced revenue and reduced expenditure for Social Security and Medicare, the shift of private pension plans from defined benefit to defined contribution, the need to consider later retirement ages, and the need for improved personal financial literacy.     

The palette that stands out: Color compositions of online curated visual UGC that attracts higher consumer interaction

Photos posted by consumers on social media, like Instagram, often include brands. Despite the substantial increase in such photos, there have been few investigations into how prospective consumers respond to this visual UGC. We begin to address this gap by investigating the role of the color compositions of visual UGC in consumer response. Consumer response is operationalized as the click-rate for a photo by a consumer when it is curated on the online site of the brand that it includes. This is the proportion of visitors who click on it for an enlarged view. Composition is operationalized as the specific combination of levels of the photo’s color attributes: hue, chroma, and brightness. Our goal is to identify the color compositions of photos, ceteris paribus, which get more clicks when they are curated. Data for our investigation comes from clicks over a one-year period on photos posted on Instagram curated by fifteen brands in six product categories on their sites. We assume Beta distributed proportions and calibrate a Beta regression using MCMC methods for our investigation.We find that click-rates are higher for photos that include higher proportions of green and lower proportions of red and cyan. We also find that chroma of red and blue are higher in photos with higher click-rates. Findings from our research led the sponsoring firm to modify its proprietary curation algorithm for client brands. The firm informed us that, post-modification, there has been a substantial increase in click-rates of curated photos for brands in several categories.     

Understanding the Interplay Among Regulatory Self-Efficacy,Moral Disengagement,and Academic Cheating Behaviour During Vocational Education: A Three-Wave Study

This study uses a quasi-experimental design to investigate what happens to individual socially responsible attitudes when they are exposed to group dynamics. Findings show that group engagement increases individual attitudes toward social responsibility. We also found that individuals with low attitudes toward social responsibility are more likely to change their opinions when group members show more positive attitudes toward social responsibility. Conversely, individuals with high attitudes do not change much, independent of group characteristics. To better analyze the effect of group dynamics, the study proposes to split social responsibility into relative and absolute components. Findings show that relative social responsibility is correlated with but different from absolute social responsibility although the latter is more susceptible than the former to group dynamics.     

Enacted identities in the university spin-off process—bridging an imaginative gap

This paper employs a case study to explore the interdependencies between enacted role identities and behavioural logics of eight inventor-founders embedded in university spin-off venturing. The major tendencies in the findings suggest that the inventor-founders enact their academic role identity following three distinct paths; re-use, return or discard. Based on these findings, two propositions are developed. Firstly, it is proposed that some academic founders may find themselves in an identity dilemma; choosing between returning to their academic roots normatively speaking or discarding their academic role identity to pursue entrepreneurial opportunities. Secondly and as an alternative, it is suggested that effectuation logics allows inventor-founders situated in volatile international environments to re-use their academic role identity as an important means in leveraging new entrepreneurial opportunities. Consequently, practical implications are drawn recommending that services, such as incubators and tech-transfer offices, incorporate tools that accommodate and assist inventor-founders in this kind of identity dilemma or alternatively employ training programs inspired by an effectuation approach.     

Brand-anchored discrete choice experiment (BDCE) vs. direct attribute rating (DAR): An empirical comparison of predictive validity

The image of a brand provides a key driver of brand equity. To build and control a strong brand image though, brand managers require a valid procedure to measure it. This article empirically compares the predictive validity of two measurement techniques to assess brand image: First, a brand-anchored discrete choice experiment (BDCE) which is based on a brand-anchored conjoint approach where brands serve as the levels for any attribute and which was originally introduced as ranting-based approach by Louviere and Johnson Journal of Retailing, 66, 359–382 (1990) and further extended to a BDCE by Eckert et al. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 29, 256–264 (2012). Second, a direct attribute rating (DAR) approach which is commonly used for commercial applications of brand image measurement. An empirical study using a representative sample of the German beer market shows that BDCE shows significantly higher levels of predictive validity (i.e., higher correlations with the actual market shares of the brands under investigation) than the widely used DAR method.     

An Investigation of the Yield Shift Theory of Satisfaction Using Field Data from the United States and the Netherlands

Yield shift theory (YST) is a relatively new theory that offers logic to predict and explain satisfaction effects for which prior theories could not fully account. We investigate the degree to which the propositions of YST are consistent with observed outcomes in a study of satisfaction with technology-supported collaboration among 322 knowledge workers from the Netherlands and 300 from the USA. Participants worked in natural groups on real tasks assigned in the course of their professional duties. All organizations used professional facilitators to guide the groups through complex collaborative tasks. Facilitators distributed a brief survey to measure the dependent variables satisfaction-with-outcome and satisfaction-with-process and the independent variables changes-in-utility and changes-in-likelihood. We validated the instrument in Dutch and English. Findings were consistent with the YST proposition that satisfaction responses are a function in shifts-in-yield for an individual’s set of active goals. We also observed that satisfaction responses also varied by national culture—on average, Netherlanders reported satisfaction responses of lower magnitude than did US participants. We discuss implications of YST for researchers and practitioners, and use its logic to reason why, in context of workplace collaboration, there may be differences in satisfaction responses by national culture.     

Rebuilding Trust: Ireland’s CSR Plan in the Light of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Caritas in Veritate</Emphasis>

This paper seeks to contribute to the discussion on national corporate social responsibility (CSR) plans from the perspectives of the three logics as articulated in Caritas in Veritate, by using the Irish national CSR plan as an example. Good for Business, Good for the Community: Ireland’s National Plan on Corporate Social Responsibility 2014–2016 maintains that CSR activities can enable organisations to build relationships and trust with communities. One of the consequences of the 2008 financial crisis was the decrease in trust in banking systems and in business more broadly. It is well recognised that relationships of trust are essential to the life of the market, the state and civil society. Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI’s Caritas in Veritate contends that corresponding to the life of the market, the state and civil society are three logics: the logic of exchange (i.e. giving to acquire), the logic of public obligation (i.e. giving through duty) and the logic of gift (i.e. giving due to solidarity). This paper proposes that the normative framework of the three logics of Caritas in Veritate can be read into the Irish national CSR plan. This paper argues that the examples of CSR initiatives proffered by the plan could point organisations in the direction of the logic of gift and therefore enable the rebuilding of relationships of trust with citizens and communities.     

Harnessing Wicked Problems in Multi-stakeholder Partnerships

Despite the burgeoning literature on the governance and impact of cross-sector partnerships in the past two decades, the debate on how and when these collaborative arrangements address globally relevant problems and contribute to systemic change remains open. Building upon the notion of wicked problems and the literature on governing such wicked problems, this paper defines harnessing problems in multi-stakeholder partnerships (MSPs) as the approach of taking into account the nature of the problem and of organizing governance processes accordingly. The paper develops an innovative analytical framework that conceptualizes MSPs in terms of three governance processes (deliberation, decision-making and enforcement) harnessing three key dimensions of wicked problems (knowledge uncertainty, value conflict and dynamic complexity). The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil provides an illustrative case study on how this analytical framework describes and explains organizational change in partnerships from a problem-based perspective. The framework can be used to better understand and predict the complex relationships between MSP governance processes, systemic change and societal problems, but also as a guiding tool in (re-)organizing governance processes to continuously re-assess the problems over time and address them accordingly.     

International entrepreneurship in universities: Context,emergence and actors

This special issue presents an opportunity to explore the international aspects of academic and university based international entrepreneurship. Over the last decades much research attention has been focused on university spin-off firms (USOs) on issues such as, creation, risk, strategies and performance (see Druilhe and Garnsey, 2004; Link and Scott, 2005; Lockett and Wright, 2005; Walter et al, 2006; Wright et al., 2006). There has been a dearth of studies that have examined the international dimensions and aspects of university-based spin-off firms. The six articles presented in this special issue point towards interesting future research agendas at the interface between academic and international entrepreneurship. Three core themes emerge from this special issue: Context, Emergence and Actors. In sum, this special issue pinpoints: firstly, specific features of universities and research organizations as contexts for international technology entrepreneurship; secondly, the process of organizational emergence and entrepreneurial cognition; and thirdly, insight into learning processes of USOs and the role of non-academic actors. Our article concludes by identifying future avenues of research.     

Toward an Understanding of Dynamic Moral Decision Making: Model-Free and Model-Based Learning

In business settings, decision makers facing moral issues often experience the challenges of continuous changes. This dynamic process has been less examined in previous literature on moral decision making. We borrow theories on learning strategies and computational models from decision neuroscience to explain the updating and learning mechanisms underlying moral decision processes. Specifically, we present two main learning strategies: model-free learning, wherein the values of choices are updated in a trial-and-error fashion sustaining the formation of habits and model-based learning, wherein the brain updates more general cognitive maps and associations, thus sustaining flexible and state-dependent behaviors. We then summarize studies explaining the neuro-computational processes of both learning strategies—the calculation of prediction errors and valuation. We conclude by emphasizing how the incorporation of dynamic aspects in moral decision making could open new avenues for understanding moral behaviors in a changing world.     

The Prametric-Based GDM Procedure Under Fuzzy Environment

The prametric is an ‘almost metric’ which does not necessarily satisfy the triangle inequality but able to describe the consensus intransitivity in group decision making (GDM) such as Tom and Jack have preferences in common, also Jack and John have preferences in common, but, Tom and John do not necessarily have preferences in common. A prametric-based consensus formation procedure for GDM was presented in a literature. This paper considers the procedure under fuzzy environment where the individuals’ preferences are provided as fuzzy numbers. The Yager defuzzification method is used for constructing the preference sequence matrix where the (i, j)-th entry indicates the alternative i’s position(s) assigned by individual j. An illustrative example for application is also included.     

The Mismeasure of Psychopathy: A Commentary on Boddy’s PM-MRV

Boddy and his colleagues have published several articles on “corporate psychopathy” using what they refer to as a Psychopathy Measure—Management Research Version (PM-MRV). They based this measure on the items that comprise the Interpersonal and Affective dimensions (Factor 1) of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), a widely used copyrighted and controlled instrument. The PM-MRV not only misspecifies the construct of psychopathy, but also serves as an example of the problems associated with an attempt to form a “new” scale by adapting items from a proprietary scale. The PCL-R measures a superordinate construct underpinned by four correlated dimensions or first-order factors, not just the two in the PM-MRV. The other two dimensions are Lifestyle and Antisocial, which together form Factor 2 of the PCL-R. As defined by the PCL-R, psychopathy requires high scores on both Factor 1 and Factor 2. Lack of validity aside, even if the PM-MRV were to be a useful measure of Factor 1, it would not discriminate between psychopathy and other “dark personalities,” such as Machiavellianism and narcissism, which, along with psychopathy, form the Dark Triad. This lack of discrimination stems from the fact that each of these personalities shares features measured by Factor 1 and, by implication, by the PM-MRV. Research findings based on the PM-MRV may have some meaning with respect to dark personalities in general, but their relevance to psychopathy, as measured with the PCL-R, is tenuous at best.