The relationship of antecedents of search and self‐esteem to adolescent search effort and perceived product knowledge

This article reviews pertinent research related to the antecedents of search and discusses a research study involving teenagers. For the low‐esteem group, “enjoyment of shopping” (intrinsic motivation) and “benefit of search” (extrinsic motivation) were the significant predictors of search effort and perceived product knowledge, whereas for the high self‐esteem group, only enjoyment of shopping (intrinsic motivation) was a significant predictor. The results are explained in terms of an intrinsic‐extrinsic motivation model. For the high–self‐esteem group, the intrinsic enjoyment of shopping leads to search effort, which in turn leads to perceived product knowledge. In contrast, for the low–self‐esteem group, the intrinsic enjoyment of shopping and the extrinsic benefit of search together lead to greater perceived product knowledge as a result of search effort. Thus, the intrinsic motivation model prevails for the high–self‐esteem group, whereas a hybrid intrinsic–extrinsic motivation model prevails for the low–self‐esteem group. The article concludes with directions for future research. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Rethinking Worldly Possessions: The Relationship between Materialism and Body Appearance for Female Consumers in an Emerging Economy

This article investigates how women in an emerging economy relate the importance of material possessions to the importance they assign to the appearance of their body. The results of two studies demonstrate a very strong and positive relationship between materialism and several measures of body appearance. Study 1 shows strong correlations between materialism and body appearance in a sample of relatively young (m = 18.7 years) and affluent female students from a private university. Using structural equation modeling, Study 2 finds that in a sample of women averaging 40 years, more materialistic women did focus substantially more on body appearance than less materialistic women. Further, antecedents (self‐esteem, hedonic attitudes toward advertising, and skepticism toward advertising) and consequences (satisfaction with life) of materialism and body appearance were included in the model. In interpreting the results, it is assumed that individuals prone to materialism apply similar appearance‐centered mental schemata to their body as they do to material possessions.     

Materialism as an attempt to cope with uncertainty

Three studies tested the hypothesis that people may turn to materialism when they face uncertainties in modern life. Study 1 showed that anomie and self‐doubt are significant predictors of materialistic orientations; other plausible antecedents have less predictive value. In Study 2, participants experiencing chronic self‐doubt showed a higher level of materialism if they were primed to experience doubt and insecurity. In Study 3, participants with chronic perceptions of anomie showed a higher level of materialism if they were primed with the concept of normlessness. Together, these three studies show that some people turn to materialism when they experience uncertainty within the self (self‐doubt) or perceive uncertainty relating to society (anomie). © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Brand Authenticity: Testing the Antecedents and Outcomes of Brand Management's Passion for its Products

While customer orientation is accepted as a core marketing principle, this research suggests that an opposing orientation—product orientation—may offer an advantage. Managers who follow a product orientation focus on products that interest and inspire them rather than on products that fulfill consumers’ desires. This research suggests that a consumer's perception that managers follow a product orientation is consistent with prior conceptualizations of brand authenticity. That research suggests that brands perceived as authentic are evaluated more positively, yet that research does not empirically assess brand authenticity's effects nor suggest its antecedents. To fill this gap, the authors develop a conceptualization and model of brand authenticity grounded in self‐determination theory, attribution theory, and extant authentic human brand research. Brand authenticity is defined as the extent to which consumers perceive that a brand's managers are intrinsically motivated in that they are passionate about and devoted to providing their products. The model proposes four antecedents of brand authenticity—two related to rare brand behaviors (uniqueness and scarcity), and two related to stable brand behaviors (longevity and longitudinal consistency). It also proposes two perceptual outcomes of brand authenticity—expected quality and trust. Two 2 × 2 experiments (n = 136 for Study 1; n = 155 for Study 2) demonstrate a positive impact of the antecedents on brand authenticity and of brand authenticity on the outcomes. Brand authenticity mediates these effects.     

The Effects of Model Size and Race on Chinese Consumers’ Reactions: A Social Comparison Perspective

Previous research on women's reactions to female body images in advertisements has been restricted to same race target women and models, and typically conducted among Western participants. The present research examines the combined effects of model race and size for the first time, and extends inquiry to Chinese consumers. Results across four experiments demonstrate that model race and size are potent informative cues that influence Chinese consumers’ self‐esteem and advertising effectiveness. Studies 1a and 1b suggest that model race is an informative trigger predicting differential social comparison and subsequent self‐esteem judgments for Chinese women, but has no effect on Chinese men's self‐esteem. In addition, model size exerts differential impacts on Chinese women's and men's self‐esteem. Study 2 shows that manipulation of the social comparison mechanism may outweigh that of race as an informative cue. Study 3 examines the relationship between model size and Chinese women's evaluative responses to advertisements. These findings not only contribute to the literature, but also offer practical guidelines for marketers advertising in China.     

The Commodification of Self‐Esteem: Branding and British Teenagers

This study explores the role of consumption in the lives of British adolescents, with a particular focus on its role in forming and maintaining self‐esteem. Through a large qualitative study, over 100 adolescents revealed their attitudes and feelings toward consumption—particularly fashion. It was found that as a result of peer pressure and the importance of conformity among adolescents, consuming the correct possessions at the right time, is essential for social acceptance, gaining and maintaining friendships and thus self‐esteem. This paper argues that self‐esteem has been commodified. The consequences of failing to “keep up” with consumption trends were revealed; these include social exclusion, negative peer evaluation, and reduced self‐esteem. Moreover, these negative consequences were particularly pronounced among adolescents from low‐income families who, in contrast to their financial status, were eager to purchase the more expensive brands. Adolescents appear to have a striking awareness of the role of branding, advertising, and peer pressure in forming their consumption attitudes, yet they are unable to resist them. The findings from this study highlight the need for a rethinking of the more traditional components of adolescent self‐esteem.     

Are consumers' financial needs and values common across cultures? Evidence from six countries

Are consumers' financial needs, and financial values, the same or different across cultures? Two studies, with student (Study 1; n = 988) and non‐student (Study 2; n = 959) participants, explore the extent of equivalence, across six countries (Brazil, Russia, China, Taiwan, Tunisia and US), in financial need belief, and financial value, measurement models. The financial need beliefs, derived from self‐determination theory (SDT) principles, include financial self‐efficacy, financial autonomy, financial community trust and support; the financial values include materialism and financial altruism. Both the financial need and financial value constructs evidence configural invariance (similar factor structure), and factor invariance among student but not non‐student samples. The financial need constructs evidence full, and the financial value constructs evidence partial, metric (factor loading) invariance. Factor covariance invariance obtains for the financial need beliefs constructs but not the financial value constructs. Finally, neither financial need nor financial value constructs evidence scalar (intercept) invariance. These results provide partial support for extending SDT's hypothesis of universal human needs to the financial domain. In contrast, the financial value constructs of altruism and materialism are largely instable across cultures, suggesting that consumer views of giving, and the role of wealth in social status, differ between countries.     

I Know,but I Would Rather Be Beautiful: The Impact of Self‐Esteem,Narcissism, and Knowledge on Addictive Tanning Behavior in Millennials

This research examines consumers' current level of sun protection knowledge and prevention, tanning motivation, and behavior. This baseline information provides a clearer understanding of actual consumer behavior and can be used to determine what knowledge deficits exist so that future research, educational materials, and communication efforts can be tailored to address those more directly. Additionally, the relationships between knowledge, self‐esteem, and narcissism are explored. Results show that knowledge has no impact on addictive tanning behavior, self‐esteem is negatively correlated, and narcissism is fully mediated by appearance motivation. Implications, potential regulatory, and communication efforts are discussed.     

Measuring childhood materialism: Refining and validating Schor's Consumer Involvement Scale

This paper examines the measurement of childhood materialism using Schor's ( 2004 ) Consumer Involvement Scale. Schor treated consumer involvement empirically as a unidimensional construct, though she suggested that conceptually it may be multidimensional. Using confirmatory factor analysis procedures on data collected from children in the U.S. and U.K., the psychometric superiority of a three‐factor structure is established, comprising dissatisfaction, consumer orientation, and brand awareness components. Additional analyses demonstrate distinct associations between each of these components and other constructs, including self‐esteem, outside school activities, and child–parent relations. The scale's generalizability across boys and girls is also confirmed. The results suggest that Schor's Consumer Involvement Scale will be useful for researchers interested in studying the important topic of materialism in children. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

I (do not) consume; therefore,I am: Investigating materialism and voluntary simplicity through a moderated mediation model

With the burgeoning of consumer culture and materialism on a global scale, a counter-culture movement, namely, voluntary simplicity, is slowly gaining currency. Extant research reveals a degree of disparateness in the relationship between materialism and voluntary simplicity. Drawing on the value-basis theory and anti-consumption research, the current study attempts at an unorthodox study of the fledgling culture of anti-consumption in urban India. The paper empirically examines the relationship between materialism and voluntary simplicity in India. This research, through an experimental study followed by a sample survey, conducted among urban Indian consumers, examines how satisfaction with life, self-efficacy, and individualism interact with materialistic values to eventually influence voluntary simplicity attitudes. In Study 1 (N = 74 working professionals), we experimentally triggered materialistic aspirations and evaluated their effects on voluntary simplicity in comparison to a control condition. In Study 2 (N = 315), individuals self-rated their materialistic values, satisfaction with life, self-efficacy, cultural orientation, and voluntary simplicity attitude. Our study, contrary to the suggestions in the existing literature, demonstrates that materialists espouse voluntary simplicity attitudes when environmental degradation around them directly impacts their health, wealth, and well-being. In addition to the positive direct effect, satisfaction with life and self-efficacy serially mediate the relationship between materialism and voluntary simplicity, providing a welcome divergence from dark-sided conceptualizations of materialism. Our results help global marketers, and public policymakers better understand the interaction between materialistic values and sustainable consumption attitudes, in the developing country perspective.     

Materialism and its relationship to individual values

The nature of materialism has been of interest to scholars for many years. Of particular recent interest have been the correlates of materialism and their relationship to each other. This study examined the relationship between individual values, demographics, and materialism. Both self‐enhancement and self‐transcendence values were examined using data from a telephone survey with a random sample of 303 U.S. respondents. It was hypothesized that self‐enhancement is positively related to materialism and self‐transcendence is negatively related. The results suggest that the relationship between values and materialism is more complex than believed previously. Analysis of variance revealed several interactions that were of potential importance for both public policy and marketing strategy. Of particular interest was the interaction between self‐enhancement and self‐transcendence. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Consumer motivation and luxury consumption: Testing moderating effects

Despite the growth of luxury markets during the last decade, luxury brand management is facing tremendous changes and challenges. In previous research, the focus has largely been on the appeal of luxury brands to represent status and prestige. However, this study argues that luxury consumption is highly individualistic and is a means through which consumers pursue personal goals.This research examines the influence of consumer goal attainment (extrinsic and intrinsic) on intention to purchase luxury products (explicitly versus subtly marked). Study 1 examines the moderating role of consumer need for uniqueness. Study 2 examines the moderating role of self-monitoring of expressive behaviour. This research resulted in three major findings. Firstly, this research shows that all respondents were more willing to buy a luxury product when it was subtly marked rather than explicitly marked. Secondly, extrinsically motivated respondents showed a greater preference for the luxury product, irrespective of signal type, than did intrinsically motivated respondents. Thirdly, for the intrinsically motivated respondents, Study 1 showed that individuals whose needs for uniqueness is high are predisposed to inconspicuous consumption. This effect was observed for respondents who were intrinsically motivated, but not for those who were extrinsically motivated. Study 2 demonstrated that low self-monitors were more disposed to inconspicuous consumption. Again, this effect was observed for respondents who were intrinsically motivated, but not for those who were extrinsically motivated. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

What Do We Really Need? Goals and Values,Security, and the Perception of Consumer Necessity

There is a general trend for consumer goods considered luxuries to become thought of as necessities. Although the luxury/necessity distinction is central to the fields of marketing and economics, little research has examined the perception of necessity as a psychological phenomenon. Three studies examined the relationship of the perceived necessity of a variety of consumer goods to goals, values, and insecurity. In Study 1, the number of goods considered necessities as opposed to luxuries correlated negatively with intrinsic and positively with extrinsic goal pursuit. In Study 2, this pattern generalized to the distinction between needs and wants, the extent to which participants reported needing their possessions, and to materialistic values. In Study 3, the perception of necessity mediated the relationship between anxious attachment and materialism, suggesting that needing consumer products has in part a basis in interpersonal insecurity. In turn, it may facilitate materialistic consumption.     

Contingent Self‐Esteem,Self‐Presentational Concerns,and Compulsive Buying

The present study investigates the influence of contingent self‐esteem (CSE) on compulsive buying tendencies. It is argued that this influence is mediated by the self‐presentational concerns of fear of negative evaluation (FNE) and the importance of social identity (SI). These core propositions are tested using a multimethod approach that includes a survey of 402 US adults and two experiments with 160 and 243 subjects, respectively. Survey results find that CSE's impact on compulsive buying is fully mediated by FNE and SI. The two experiments deepen understanding of this effect. Only under high levels of anxiety do those high in CSE exhibit compulsive buying. High CSE leads to higher FNE and SI regardless of anxiety levels, but only at high anxiety levels do FNE and SI lead to compulsive buying. The study's results increase understanding of the role and process by which CSE impacts compulsive buying in adults of all ages.     

An assessment of the proximity of clothing to self scale for older persons

Sontag and Lee developed the Proximity of Clothing to Self (PCS) Scale, an objective measure of the psychological closeness of clothing to the self, and validated a 4‐factor, 24‐item scale with adolescents. The research reported here extends their work by validating a 3‐factor, 19‐item PCS Scale for use with older persons, age 65 and over. A mail survey was sent to a national random sample of 1700 older persons in the United States resulting in 250 respondents in the final sample. Three analytical rounds of confirmatory factor analysis to test the construct validity of the PCS Scale were conducted by using a structural equation modelling programme. The validated three PCS dimensions (i.e. factors) are clothing in relation to: (1) self as structure – process; (2) self‐esteem – evaluative and affective processes; and (3) body image and body cathexis. The researchers recommend using this 19‐item PCS Scale for future consumer behaviour research on older persons when investigating the importance of dress, clothing needs or clothing involvement to meet basic human needs, self‐esteem, life satisfaction and successful aging.     

Brand Ownership As a Central Component of Adolescent Self‐esteem: The Development of a New Self‐esteem Scale

This article outlines the development of a new scale to measure adolescent self‐esteem. The new scale addresses weaknesses in existing measures that have failed to consider the growth of the consumer society in the Western world and the impact of this on the formation of adolescent self‐esteem. The development of this scale includes extensive qualitative research with over 100 high school pupils, which led to a series of quantitative data collection and analysis processes to develop the scale. In the final stage, data were collected from 889 pupils and analyzed to confirm the validity and reliability of the new measure. The result of this work is a 21‐item self‐esteem scale comprising of four distinct, yet interrelated factors: self‐evaluation, social ability, social comparison effects, and notably, brand ownership. The findings provide an updated and upgraded measure of self‐esteem that takes into consideration the specific audience of adolescents living in a consumer culture. The scale development process demonstrates that when considering the formation of self‐esteem, the influence of the use and possession of commercial brands is as relevant as the traditional factors/components such as academic achievement or sporting prowess.     

A Model of motivated cognition to account for the link between self‐monitoring and materialism

Drawing on previous theorizing about the development of materialistic values, a model of motivated cognition is proposed to account for the positive association between self‐monitoring and materialism. The model suggests that self‐monitoring is associated with individual differences in belonging motivation, that belonging motivation shapes people's beliefs about buying as a means of belonging within valued groups, and that buying‐is‐for‐belonging beliefs shape the degree to which people value wealth and luxury. Results from two studies supported this model and suggested that the self‐monitoring results are not better attributed to extraversion, social self‐confidence, or shyness. The proposed model emphasizes that traits associated with a strong need to belong may predispose people toward materialism. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

From desire to help to taking action: Effects of personal traits and social media on market mavens’ diffusion of information

While extant research has studied traits of market mavens and the link from mavenism to market helping behavior, there is a need for more research to understand personal and contextual factors that influence actual recommendations of products and differences among market mavens with different traits in that respect. In this study, we took research in the area of market mavenism one step further and investigated the role of personal traits such as self‐esteem and susceptibility to normative interpersonal influence, and the contextual factor of social media, in the frequency of recommendations. We hypothesize that while market mavens with lower self‐esteem are likely to engage in less frequent recommendations, negative effect of their lower self‐esteem is attenuated when they use social media platforms as their medium of choice. Our findings lend support to our hypotheses, including the triple interaction effect between self‐esteem, choice of social media, and market mavenism on market recommendations.     

The social–psychological bases of anticonsumption attitudes

This article proposes that the increasing number of individuals voluntarily reducing their levels of consumption may be motivated by underlying social–psychological stress related to living in a consumer society. Of the three primary motivational bases of the self (esteem, efficacy, and authenticity), it is argued that only self‐esteem and self‐efficacy can be acquired through consumption. The current growth of the voluntary simplicity movement, it is argued, is among those individuals who have met the need for esteem and efficacy through consumption, but have failed to achieve a sense of authenticity. Evidence from interviews with participants in the voluntary simplicity movement is presented in support of this proposition. Anticonsumption attitudes, it is concluded, result from a process of self‐inquiry triggered by the failure to feel authentic through one's consumption activities. Implications of anticonsumption attitudes in reaction to consumer culture are discussed. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.