Political issues in inland waterways port development: prospects for regionalization

In the vast scientific literature on maritime transport, one theme appears neglected: the juridico-political framework in port development. We first examine how the jurisdictional control influences the allocation of resources and financial responsibilities. Second, we carefully evaluate conventional theoretical explanations of the process of port development as it generates important consequences on port policy formulation. We suggest that the concept of the port transition needs to be positioned within a new paradigm of the regional economy. Third, by focusing on three case studies namely France, China and Canada, we provide an understanding of institutional structure and how they reflect tendencies in port development. We then investigate regional flows, particularly the role of offshore, inshore and coastal traffic. Fourth, we present policy options for regionalization of ports. Fifth, we explore the regional elements of the port transition and provide an appreciation of the new role of the State in port development policies. The paper concludes on the adoption of new paradigm in port development strategies.     

Regional policy issues for rail freight services

This paper presents some of the results of the shortlines research project for Ademe (French agency for the environment) and Predit (French support program for surface transport research). The paper focuses on France, and makes some comparisons with North America and Germany. It is organized in two parts. The first part analyses the notion of “short line” freight railways in the European context. We observe that to date, unlike short lines in North America, which have mostly sought cooperation with major railways, the new rail operators in Europe are competing with the majors. The second part discusses regional policies on rail freight transport. We observe that for some time, local governments in France have been afraid that the on-going reduction of regional rail freight services will increase truck traffic and environmental impacts. Today, however, these governments appear to be more reluctant to promote rail freight activities than they were a few years ago. The current conditions under which local lines operate in Europe and especially in France, including small capacity on the infrastructure and high cost of labor and low productivity, may explain this reluctance.     

Railroad wheat transportation markets in the central plains: modeling with error correction and directed graphs

Time series methods are used to study the dynamics of regional, export-wheat, railroad rates linking seven central US regions to Texas Gulf ports. Research focuses on the extent and nature of regional rate interactions to determine whether regional rail transportation rates are established independently, through interaction and/or dominated by several regional leaders. Analysis is carried out on 1988–1994 public waybill data for seven Business Economic Areas (BEA) located in Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas and Colorado: these regions originate virtually all of the eight million tons of hard red winter wheat annually shipped to Texas Gulf ports. Results show all rail transportation markets linked in varying degrees. Some regions are near-independent or highly exogenous regarding rate-setting, while others interact with and to rates established in other regions. Regions that are dominated by a single carrier tend to be more independent and insulated regarding rate-setting. Export rates in regions dominated by the Union Pacific (UP) generally account for a significant variation in the rates of other regions. Data show the UP to have been aggressive in providing incentives for country elevators to consolidate for purposes of making unit train shipments, thus their presumed influence on rates of other regions. As expected, export rates for regions with substantial storage and transhipment facilities are sensitive to export rates of regions which ship to the transhipment facilities. Finally, results suggest that rate-setting in a particular region is in part a function of the dominant railroad’s management and its aggressiveness, an expected outcome in an oligopolistic market.     

Impact of high-speed rail on regional economic disparity in China

This paper investigates a fundamental question related to the massive railway infrastructure development in China. What is the impact of high-speed rail (HSR) on regional economic disparity? The question is investigated from three perspectives. First, the influence of HSR on regional economic disparity is discussed theoretically from the perspective of New Economic Geography. Second, the variation in economic disparity at both the national and regional levels is investigated using three indexes: the weighted coefficient of variation, the Theil index and the Gini index. Third, the linkages between regional economic growth and HSR is measured empirically from a quantitative and qualitative perspective using an endogenous growth modelling framework with a panel data covering the period 2000–2014. The rail network density is adopted as a proxy to reflect the quantity change in rail investment. Three accessibility indicators (weighted average travel time, potential accessibility and daily accessibility) are introduced to capture the improvement of HSR transport quality. Our findings confirm that regional economic disparity has been decreased since the development of HSR. HSR has promoted regional economic convergence in China. Specifically, the positive effect of rail network density on regional economic growth is found to be significant in the East and North, whereas the positive effect of accessibility change is found to be more significant in the Middle Reaches of Yangtze River, the Southwest and the South China.     

Development dynamics of the Portuguese range as a multi-port gateway system

The aim of this paper is to discuss the current status of port regionalization in the Portuguese range and to identify its possible developments, giving special consideration to cross-border issues. The ‘Portuguese range’ comprises a set of ports located in the west coast of the Iberian Peninsula, grouped in a multi-port gateway region, directly connected to one of the main European Union rail freight corridors. These ports possess a natural competitive advantage as a gateway to foreland regions along the Atlantic Ocean, such as Latin America, North America and West Africa. In order to fully realize this potential, the entire range is engaged in a regionalization process into certain regions of Spain, which is analysed in this paper. The paper builds upon previous work on regionalization, inland terminal networks, dry port development and dyad formations and applies these concepts to the Portuguese range, in its pursue for the capture of hinterlands in Spain. The validity of the regionalization theoretical framework is thus benchmarked against a trans-national case and novel elements are sought to enrich the framework. The paper first describes the current situation of container terminals in the Portuguese range regarding throughput, rail connections, network of inland terminals (and dry ports) and its utilization. Comparison is made with its Spanish counterparts. The policies of major stakeholders are also reviewed concerning dry port and logistic platform development. A number of potential and existing seaport-dry port dyads are identified. Conclusions and policy suggestions are presented.     

Quantification of the non-transport benefits resulting from rail investment

Traditional methods of evaluation have not been very successful in accounting for non-transport benefits resulting from rail investments. But increasingly, these factors are becoming more important in well-developed transport networks, as the effects of additional links or capacity cannot be justified in transport terms alone. This paper brings together the evidence at three separate levels arguing that there are different impacts that must be investigated at different levels with appropriate methods. At the macroeconomic level, regional network effects can be identified, as can the impacts on the economy as measured through changes in output and productivity. At the meso level, the impacts relate more to agglomeration economies and labour market effects, with some additional network and environmental consequences. At the micro level, the impacts are determined by the land and property market effects. Examples of rail investment are given for each of the scales of analysis, and conclusions are drawn on the future directions and challenges for the quantification of both transport and non-transport benefits.     

Improving interchanges in China: the experiential phenomenon

This paper examines the development of multimodal passenger rail hubs as part of the high-speed rail (HSR) network in the People’s Republic of China (PRC). The instrumental, attitudinal and affective experience of the journey through the interchange is assessed from the user perspective. Surveys are used from three HSR stations: Beijing South, Chengdu East and Suzhou North (N = 150), representing three types of HSR stations, i.e. national capital, regional capital and sub-regional city. ‘Expected’ and ‘realised’ facilities are compared – with the difference representing the ‘disgruntlement’ factor (after Stradling et al., 2007).The unprecedented urbanisation process currently being witnessed in the PRC, together with the rapid development of the HSR network and associated multimodal interchanges, offers much opportunity to develop a leading-edge public transport system and urban development predicated on the use of public transport. Although the importance of intermodal interchange hubs is being increasingly recognised, the journey experience through the interchange often remains poor, with problems including Wi-Fi availability, waiting and seating, the availability of door-to-door ticketing, crowdedness, access to the hub, time of travel through and waiting in the hub. MANOVA analysis and factorial (three way) MANOVA analysis are used to explore the differences between intermodal hubs, with many instrumental and particularly attitudinal and affective factors being significantly influenced by location.     

Comparing maritime containers and semi-trailers in the context of hinterland transport by rail

The purpose of this article is to investigate why rail is used to move semi-trailers to and from seaports to lesser extent than it is used to move maritime containers, and which actions can foster an increase of semi-trailer transport by rail. The two types of load units are obviously used in quite different logistics settings. The two transport segments are compared in terms of the transport markets they serve, the competition they face and the operational and technological principles upon which they operate.The empirical setting is the transport of general cargo in load units between Scandinavia, Continental Europe and the UK, although the container segment is analysed as an element of deep-sea liner shipping. Empirical findings are drawn from the case of the Port of Gothenburg and its Scandinavian hinterland. Sustained double-digit annual growth has led to a situation where most of the potential market for the hinterland transport of maritime containers has already been realised. The challenge for further growth is now to capture the semi-trailer segment.Not surprisingly, this analysis shows that rail is more competitive for the hinterland transport of containers than of semi-trailers, but there are still significant opportunities for reaping the benefits of rail transport of semi-trailer transport in the hinterlands of European ports. An increased integration of rail transport and Roll-on/Roll-off shipping will not only require, but also encourage, changes in the overall system design as well as its competitiveness compared to all-road and all-rail services.     

The development of the Yangtze River container port system

This paper sheds an empirical light on port development patterns by discussing the structure and the development of the Yangtze River ports system. We argue that the Yangtze River system is going through a regionalization phase, mainly in relation to the port of Shanghai. This process started on the lower Yangtze but is now also moving upstream. The transition towards the port regionalization phase is typically a gradual and market-driven process that mirrors the increased focus of market players on logistics integration. This paper builds on the existing literature on port systems and adapts port development models to river ports. Furthermore, we employ some statistical techniques that are common to the analysis of port systems, and introduce some techniques that have not been used much by transport geographers in ports. This paper will address the dynamics in the Yangtze River ports system by analyzing the level of cargo concentration and the degree of inequality in operations of the container ports. The paper also assesses observed differences in development of ports in different areas along the river (upstream/downstream) and reflects on the role of ownership structures in shaping regional load centre networks.     

Developing new urban public transport systems: An irrational decision-making process

The decision-making process for planning new urban public transport systems in the UK is examined by studying 11 new and planned systems. The objectives of building the systems relate to transport and development issues. A number of key factors are taken into account during the decision-making process: forecast demand, image, deregulation of buses, technological innovation, private sector involvement and the funding mechanism. The requirement for proven technology and the forecast demand for the systems reduces the choice to one of light rail or bus. The effects of bus deregulation, funding and image, essentially reduce that choice to light rail or nothing. Cost should be kept low, which suggests a bus based system, but current legislation favours more expensive light rail systems. The conclusion is that although transport planners make rational decisions within the current political framework, the framework, and therefore some of the decisions, are not rational.     

Regional cooperation and the regionalization of air travel in Central New England

The regionalization of air traffic in Central New England since 1995, shifting traffic from Boston to regional airports, has come about as a response to factors unique to that region within the US. However, the results of regional cooperation between airport operators and the concomitant regionalization of air traffic are applicable to any region that is trying to increase metropolitan airport capacity by making greater use of smaller, regional airports. These results include benefits for travelers, “spreading the burden” of airport neighbors, and replicating the costs and benefits of air travel over a greater area.     

Rail infrastructure charging and on-track competition in Germany

Germany was one of the pioneers amongst the European railways in opening up the network for third party access and introducing track access charging schemes. Several rail companies run services on the tracks of the incumbent company DB. This paper analyses the rules for network access, the track access charging scheme and the problems of competition in the rail market. The focus is on regional rail passenger transport due to the fact that this is the most lucrative and promising market for new entrants. The main result is that in this segment in particular non-DB companies have increasingly used the chances which were opened by (paid) access to DB tracks and competitive tendering by regional authorities. However, although their market share has grown DB is still the major carrier. The failure to set an appropriate institutional and regulatory framework has proven to be the major obstacle to a more intensive competition in the rail market.     

The interplay of formal and informal institutions between local and regional authorities when creating well-functioning public transport systems

This paper analyzes how public transport planning is managed in institutional contexts where governance is spread across local and regional scales. The paper sheds light on two facets of the relationship between local and regional government: first, the decision-making process regarding where to provide public transport services and at what level, and second, integration of public transport with land use planning. An analytical matrix is used to cross-reference the roles of formal institutions (governance established in law) and informal institutions (governance not established in law) against local and regional responsibilities for public transport and land use. Analysis of the interplay between these three axes (formal/informal, local/regional, public transport/land use) reveals how informal institutions help regional and local authorities to negotiate the constraints of formal, statutory institutions and help to “oil the wheels” of delivering measures and policies that make public transport work as a well-functioning system. However, informal institutions clearly have their limits, in the paper exemplified by the remaining challenges to integrate regional public transport and local land use planning. An identified challenge is that, by their very nature, informal institutions are difficult to influence or modify, therefore relying on them to fill gaps in formal institutional responsibilities may be a risky strategy when unpopular decisions are made.     

助推经济社会发展 引领交通运输未来——武广高铁开通运营的实践与启示

结合武广高铁开通运营给旅游、城市开发等带来的影响，从交通运输结构、经济辐射半径、沿线城市规划布局、旅客出行四个方面分析武广高铁如何促进区域经济社会发展格局改变，阐述高速铁路在现代交通运输业中的重要地位。     

The relative importance of factors that influence the break-even distance of intermodal freight transport systems

The break-even distance of an intermodal freight system is a crucial piece of information for shippers as they decide whether to choose a specific freight transport system. It is also important for policy makers who want to demonstrate to shippers that the intermodal system is substantially more beneficial over a certain distance and encourage shippers to use it. However, the break-even distance is highly dependent on market situations. In other words, it is not possible to estimate the definitive break-even distance that is generally applicable. To date, the literature has addressed factors, including costs and distances, that impact the break-even distance without considering the relative importance of each of these factors. This study attempts to address this gap in knowledge by evaluating the relative importance of geometric and cost factors. The former includes drayage distances (i.e., pre- and post-haulage by trucks), truck-only distance, rail distance, the shape of the market area, and the terminal location, while the latter includes the drayage truck rate, the long-distance truck rate, the rail rate, and the terminal handling rate. Finally, by developing a Monte Carlo-based simulation model, the relative importance can be evaluated. The key finding is that the geometric factors and terminal handling costs are not more significant than the transport costs (i.e., rail costs and long-distance trucking costs) in general. Specifically, to shorten the break-even distance, either reducing the rail rate or increasing the truck rate is the most effective strategy. A 1% change in these factors is almost seven times, three times, and twice as effective as a 1% change in the handling costs at terminals, rail distance, and drayage cost, respectively. Furthermore, neither the oval-shaped market area nor a terminal relocation attracts customers to intermodal systems in general. When two options are combined, the synergic effect is significant.     

A logistical perspective on the potential for modal shift of freight from road to rail in Great Britain

Freight modal shift from road to rail is a potential means by which the negative environmental and social impacts of transport can be reduced. This paper explores recent supply chain changes and assesses their impacts on the mode choice decision-making process, specifically addressing the implications for the use of rail. Despite many of the identified changes effectively making the use of rail more difficult, considerable evidence has been found of the potential for rail to attract new traffic. Much of the identified potential is unlikely to materialise, however, without improvements in rail network capability and capacity and a greater customer focus from rail freight operators.     

Geography,transport and Africa’s proximity gap

Geography causes African countries to experience a ‘proximity gap’. To overcome this gap requires regional cooperation in four main areas: transport infrastructure, trade facilitation, decentralization and local economic development, and migration – each with implications for transport. Because incentives for regional cooperation in these aspects may not be symmetrical, commitments made may not be credible. Therefore, transport infrastructure at least should be bound in World Trade Organisation rules on trade facilitation to provide third party enforcement. Incentives for cooperation could also be improved with transport corridor design and collective peer pressure by landlocked countries. Regional cooperation could be supported by the international community with aid, the assurance of full implementation and adherence to international law on the rights of landlocked countries to transport to the sea, the extension of appropriate trade preferences to African regions and ensuring consistency of international agreements and trade preferences with current regional integration initiatives.     

The role of regional airports and air services in the United Kingdom

This paper deals with the implications of the 1998 UK transport White Paper for regional airports and air services within the wider context of the promotion of an integrated and sustainable transport system. More specifically, the discussion initially addresses the political and business context of the development of air transport in the UK regions. Secondly, the recent trends defining that development are isolated, particular attention being paid to the increasing importance of supplier-led strategies in air transport and the segmented markets served by regional airports. Finally, the three, not easily reconciled, strands, which can be identified in the White Paper’s analysis of aviation are considered. These are: air transport's relationship with sustainable development; the integration of air transport with surface modes; and the contribution of air transport to regional economic growth.     

Kingdon’s multiple streams model and automobile dependence reversal path: the case of Curitiba, Brazil

This paper draws on Kingdon’s multiple streams model of problems, policies and politics to explain the process of automobile dependence reversal path in urban transport planning in Curitiba, Brazil. What significantly contributed to the automobile dependence reversal path was a diverse coalition of actors who mobilized capabilities and structures to exploit policy windows at different periods of time and even tried to trigger policy windows within the milieu of problems, policies and politics of Curitiba to implement policies on public and non-motorized transport. The Curitiba experience shows that addressing the embedded problem of automobile dependence sometimes requires innovative and strategic responses within the intricate political, policy and urban planning dynamics of a city.     

The impacts of high-speed trains on British economic geography: a study of the UK’s InterCity 125/225 and its effects

The arrival of high-speed trains (HSTs) leads to unprecedented time-space effects, potentially assisting face-to-face contacts in knowledge-generating process, yet its wider spatial-economic impacts are still open to debate. This research attempts to fill in this gap with empirical evidence by studying the inter-regional impacts of upgraded British InterCity 125/225 on British economic geography over 30 years. The six study routes of London-outbound trains serving major railways stations in 26 local authorities were selected as units of analysis, with the observation of differential effects both between HSTs and non-HSTs towns and among each group of towns, to understand time-space effects of InterCity 125/225 whose potential impacts on local economic strength and knowledge intensive development. The key findings suggest that the differential HST effects on British economic geography could be classified into three influential zones, namely 1-h, 2-h, and over-2-h towns. HST has had substantial and demonstrable effects in aiding this transition within a 2-h travel limit of London, thus helping to generate renewed economic growth, but that the effects have not been automatic or universal. Regarding future British HST policy, the implications arising from this study is that cities connected to a new HST could seize opportunities which non-HST cities will not be able to do so, but this is not a zero-sum situation. Instead, it involves a national strategy to develop a hierarchical network with HST between London and key regional hubs, well integrated at these hubs with intra-regional transport systems. This indicates a strong case for a finer-grained and deeper probing analysis at an intra-regional level of the potential for rail improvement as an agent of change in city-region development. We hope to report further on this in a subsequent paper.