Analytical Reflections on the Economic Impact Assessment of Conventions and Special Events

Abstract

Over the past decades, the growth of the convention and event industry has enhanced an awareness of its economic significance to local, state, and national economies. Accordingly, many industry and academic studies have introduced various methods for accurately assessing the direct and indirect economic impacts of conventions and special events. Among them, the input-output (I-O) model is widely used for the economic impact assessments. This article first reviews economic impact studies in the convention and event tourism sector and then discusses issues related to the I-O model framework.     

旅游影响研究进展

旅游影响包括旅游的经济、环境和社会影响。对它的研究于20世纪印年代始于英语国家，并逐渐成为旅游研究中一个非常重要的领域。本文在对所能获得的有代表性的国外(主要是英文资料)和国内有关其研究的论著进行分析的基础上，对国内外旅游经济、环境和社会影响的研究进行了简要的回顾和评述。     

The Impact of Sports Events on Inbound Tourism in New Zealand

Sports events are an instrument of destination marketing for host countries. Over the past 40 years, New Zealand has held sports events such as the Commonwealth Games and the America's Cup and many international tourists have visited New Zealand during these events. While past studies have examined the economic value of such tourism at a generic level, the impact of mega sports events at more specific levels is unknown. Thus, this study examines not only the impact of eight mega sports events upon New Zealand's international tourist arrivals over the 1983–2005 period at the overall level, but also the number of tourist arrivals from participating countries for each event. Results suggest that the 1990 Commonwealth Games, the 2000 America's Cup (yachting) and the 2005 British and Irish Lions Tour (rugby) had a significant impact on tourist arrivals overall and on arrivals from each participating country.     

西方事件及事件旅游研究的概念、内容、方法与启发(上)

事件及事件旅游(Event＆EventTourism,简称E＆ET)已经成为西方旅游研究的热点之一。在研究大量文献的基础上,作者对西方主要国家事件及事件旅游的研究情况和学科发展进行了系列介绍。全部介绍共分6个部分。本文是第1至第3部分。第1部分(引言)通过对互联网检索资料的统计,分析了事件及事件旅游的发展简况;第2部分介绍了事件及事件旅游的研究进展,对事件及事件旅游的早期文献、目前研究概况进行了介绍。第3部分介绍了事件及事件旅游研究的基础,包括事件及事件旅游的基本概念、事件的分类、事件策划和事件旅游规划的框架。针对非典型性肺炎(SARS)这一对我国旅游业造成重大影响的突发性危机事件,文章还介绍了国内外相关研究文献的概况。     

西方事件及事件旅游研究的概念、内容、方法与启发(下)

事件及事件旅游(Event ＆ Event Tourism，简称E＆ET)已经成为西方旅游研究的热点之一。在研究大量文献的基础上，作者对西方主要国家事件及事件旅游的研究情况和学科发展进行了系列介绍。全部介绍共分6个部分。本文是第4至第6部分。第4部分对事件及事件旅游的研究内容进行了归纳总结，总结了事件及事件旅游研究的五大内容和三大框架。第5部分介绍了事件及事件旅游研究两个重点领域的研究情况：第1节对体育赛事与体育旅游进行了介绍，着重分析了奥运会及其旅游效应的研究，对体育旅游(Sport Tourism)和休闲体育(Leisure Sport)的研究进行了评价；第2节介绍了节事的旅游效应，归纳了节事旅游研究的重点领域。第6部分在分析我国相关研究情况的基础上，结合西方的研究趋势，对我国事件及事件旅游的研究进行了展望，提出了4个研究重点与方向。     

Local Perspectives on the Impact of Tourism on Religious Festivals in Bhutan

The Himalayan nation of Bhutan is known to embrace Gross National Happiness rather than Gross National Product as the measure of its people's well-being. Happiness, spirituality and cultural authenticity are prominent factors in Bhutan's tourism image, and these attributes are most clearly exhibited in the traditional festivals that are among the most popular attractions for many foreign tourists. This paper introduces the cultural practice of religious festivals in Bhutan and investigates how tourism may be affecting these festivals. Within this context, this paper reports on the findings of a survey of Bhutanese monks and lay people, regarding their impressions of the effects of tourists on one particular event – the Tsechu festival. With the Bhutanese government's aim to increase the number of annual tourists more than fourfold to 200,000 by 2018, this research provides a baseline study of the perceived impact of tourism on religious festivals and addresses the issue of whether such an increase in volume of tourists would pose a threat to the integrity and value of these festivals as perceived by Bhutanese people.     

居民旅游影响感知测量量表开发的实证研究

居民对旅游影响的感知是衡量旅游目的地影响的有效途径.本文针对居民旅游影响感知衡量标准不一致,测量量表缺乏信度和效度检验的现象,通过对国内外著名旅游专家的访谈和中国旅游目的地的实证调研,运用统计分析的方法开发了中国居民旅游影响感知的测量量表,该量表包括居民旅游正面影响感知3个维度11个题项,负面影响感知3个维度11个题项.统计检验和实证分析的结果表明,可用该量表对中国居民旅游影响感知进行评估和测度.     

旅游区经济影响域界定研究——以八达岭长城旅游区为例

文章提出了旅游区经济影响域的概念和关键指标、界定模型,并选取八达岭旅游区作为典型案例区,旅游区周围的6个村落为样本点,进行现场问卷调查和深入访谈,从而获取了旅游经济指标的实测值以及样本空间坐标。然后运用旅游区经济影响指数模型和旅游区经济影响域域值模型对样本数据进行总体趋势和范围的分析。结果发现,基于户均旅游直接就业和收入标准化值的八达岭旅游区旅游经济影响域域值为2.84千米,该值代表了八达岭旅游区经济辐射范围核心部分。在此基础上,刻画出旅游经济影响域的空间结构,并探讨了空间分异的原因。     

国外基于CGE模型的旅游经济影响评价研究

本文首次概述了可计算一般均衡模型（CGE）在国外旅游经济影响研究中的领域及其研究视角,对比分析了CGE模型与其他主要旅游经济影响评价方法的差异。最后,本文也论及了旅游CGE模型的未来发展趋势：旅游CGE模型能纳入更多的经济体的现实特征和旅游相关数据,对旅游的经济影响问题进行深入分析;为旅游相关政策、决策的制定提供科学依据;为特殊事件的旅游经济影响评价提供准确的测量工具。     

Impact of Tourism Openness Across the Taiwan Strait: Perspective of Mainland Chinese Tourists

ABSTRACT

Millennials, who are different from the older generations in leisure and consumption propensities, constitute more than 30% of the global population. The increase in the proportion of millennials in the population has motivated national museums in Korea to implement a new operational strategy for attracting this generation. Using data envelopment analysis, this study reveals that Korean millennials are more interested in special exhibitions and participatory events compared to the earlier generations. The results also indicate that enhancing the overall revisit rate significantly improves the overall performance of national museums. This study is expected to help museums and event organizers to establish differentiated operational strategies according to visitor types for “what service should be provided for whom.”     

事件对举办地的旅游形象影响与提升战略研究综述

旅游视角下的事件影响研究越来越引起关注.本文在检索EBSCO host、Elsevier Science direct、Ingenta select等数据库的基础上,将近十年来此方面的研究按事件前后旅游形象感知的变化、媒介的影响与整合营销、事件的网络合作、旅游吸引物与事件要素的捆绑四方面进行综述,发现此方面的研究是不系统的、零碎的,缺少循序渐进的研究;事件对旅游形象的提升受旅游者及事件自身特征等复杂因素的影响,但各利益相关者的沟通合作、事件与举办地形象建设的整合捆绑、社区居民支持的积极作用得到认同,以期对即将在我国举办的系列大型事件的研究与组织起到一定的借鉴作用.     

国外重大活动经济影响研究

对重大活动的影响进行多角度、多方法的评估已成为国际事件研究的重要内容和前沿课题之一,其中,更加关注经济影响的研究成果明显居多数.本文将对西方的重大活动经济影响研究成果做一次全面梳理,以分析其发展现状并指出存在不足和未来发展趋势,希望对国内学术界有所启发,同时为国内正在或将要举办各种大型活动的城市提供指导.     

旅游景区事件营销误区透析——以飞机再次穿越天门洞为例

目前,国内外已有许多文献对事件旅游进行了研究,但对于旅游景区事件营销策划的研究较少.本文以飞机再次穿越天门洞的具体实例为出发点,采用经济学的视角分析了旅游景区事件营销产生的背景及原因,对此次景区事件营销的误区进行了深入分析,并指出了景区事件营销的真正出路.     

Economics of venue selection for special sporting events: With special reference to the 1996 Melbourne grand prix

Venue selection for major sporting attractions can be a highly politicized decision making process. Due to the sometimes controversial nature of venue selection, politicians can be circumspect on related issues including potential economic impacts. This was the case with the Australian Formula 1 Grand Prix held at Albert Park, Melbourne in March 1996. Comments provided by the authorities on matters associated with the venue selection referred to both the opportunity to showcase Melbourne on international and national television due to the proximity of Albert Park to the Melbourne skyline as well as referring to the fact that the Australian Grand Prix had been conducted at Albert Park in the 1950s and therefore the race could be said to be returning home! However, limited details have been made public regarding the financial aspects of the event. A real challenge was to estimate expenditure by the visitor and the indirect economic benefits on regional economies in the absence of formal data. In the aftermath of the event, however, the media amply reported estimated figures for gross economic gains attributable to the Grand Prix. This paper argues that it is possible to use these estimates of gross economic gains, as reported by the media, to derive the direct contribution of this event This paper investigates the comparative benefits of an alternative venue, such as Sandown Park in the Eastern region and concludes that the higher multiplier effects evident in the Melbourne Metropolitan Region ensured that any decision made on economic grounds would favor Albert Park over outlying regions.     

The Constraints Experienced and Negotiation Strategies Attempted by Nonparticipants of a Festival Event

The leisure constraints and negotiation model was used to examine nonparticipation in a large festival event. A purposive sampling survey was conducted with 502 event nonparticipants. The results indicated that the hierarchical leisure constraints model is a useful framework for understanding the constraints to attendance at special events. Consistent with previous research on constraints to participation, structural constraints were the greatest category of constraint, followed by interpersonal and intrapersonal constraints. Further, nonparticipants who experienced intrapersonal constraints were least likely to attempt negotiations relative to time, partners, or finances. Additionally, this study compared the constraints of nonparticipants who were interested and disinterested in attending the event and found disinterested nonparticipants perceived greater intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints than those interested in attending, suggesting that constraints create amotivation. Disinterested event nonparticipants were also less likely to negotiate constraints to participation, especially barriers related to lack of time and partners with whom to participate. Finally, interested nonparticipants who experienced intrapersonal constraints were less likely to attempt to negotiate constraints. This study broadens the scope of the constraints and negotiation discussion to include the context of a community festival event, as well as differences in constraints and negotiation between interested and disinterested event nonparticipants.     

TRAMO/SEATS在危机事件中对旅游影响研究的应用

国内外对旅游危机事件的研究集中于管理方面,近年相关热点转向对旅游影响的研究.以往定性研究多,从经济数量模型进行定量分析研究的较少.本文使用在经济金融领域使用广泛的ARIMA改进版--TRAMO/SEATS方法评估危机事件,如疾病、地震等突发事件对中国旅游业的影响.作为欧盟各国统计局主要统计方法,TRAMO/SEATS方法能够最大程度地反映旅游业季节性波动的特点.通过该方法对2003年在中国内地和香港地区爆发的SARS进行实证研究,分析评估该危机事件的长期影响.在此基础上提出,国家短期内应当通过提高产品质量和拓展高质量的细分市场实现旅游效益型增长;恢复后期才可以推出更为直接的促销手法实现旅游数量型增长,采取刺激旅游人数快速增长的政策和措施.     

国内有关旅游对接待地社会文化影响的研究述评

旅游对接待地的社会文化影响是近年来旅游学界研究的热点问题之一。本文在回顾国内研究进展的基础上．对旅游对接待地社会文化影响的基础理论和主要内容作了重点而详尽的介绍，并就我国目前研究中存在的问题提出了一些看法。     

Understanding Event Sport Tourism Experiences of Support Partners: A Research Note

The purpose of this research reflection is to set the stage for a more detailed research agenda in exploring event sport tourism experiences of support partners (SPs) during events. Using photo elicitation, the article presents a preliminary empirical case study. Visual materials were assembled by three female participants to interrogate how SPs experience “spectator space” and explore the processes that produced those experiences, an area of study that remains relatively unexplored in leisure research. Initial findings show how waiting to see the triathlete can be anxiety-provoking, but the release of emotion when smiles are exchanged constitutes core activities of being there. However, there are more questions than answers, and there is a need for further inquiry. Suggestions for future research on the impact of serious leisure on intimate others are given.     

Spending Behaviors of Event Tourists

Abstract

Assessing the economic impact of a tourism event on a host economy often involves the estimation of average event tourist spending per trip/night. As event and destination marketers become more selective with their promotions, targeting prospective high-value tourists, it is important for them to know the spending characteristics of different types of visitors so that resources can be allocated to reach and influence event tourists who will most benefit the host economy. This study's findings of visitors to the 1999 Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta reveal that tourists from communities nearer the host economy typically spend fewer net dollars than those from greater distances. First time event visitors spend considerably more than repeat visitors who have “been there, done that” and may not feel the need to do “that” again.     

海南居民对国际旅游岛政策影响的感知及态度

旅游目的地社区居民对于旅游影响的感知及态度一直是旅游地理学研究的热点议题。然而,国内外学界鲜有关注旅游地居民对于重大旅游政策影响的感知及态度。国际旅游岛政策实施将对包括海南居民在内的利益攸关者产生重要且深远的影响。文章研究发现：1）海南居民对于国际旅游岛政策普遍持积极态度,但对该政策内容的实际认知程度较低;2）现阶段海南居民对于国际旅游岛政策的影响较为乐观,而对于该政策的风险感知较弱;3）尽管海南居民普遍热衷于彩票等博彩娱乐活动,然而,对于即将在海南试水的博彩旅游项目大部分持较为消极和反对的态度,性别、户口、年龄、居住时间、月收入水平和职业等因素均显著影响其对博彩旅游发展的态度;4）社会交换理论可以被用来解释居民对于重大旅游政策影响的感知及态度,居民对于该政策的积极影响感知越强烈,越倾向于支持该政策。未来随着国际旅游岛政策负面影响逐渐显现,海南居民对于该政策的态度可能会出现分化。