Corporate social responsibility and gender equality: women as stakeholders and the European Union sustainability strategy

This paper examines how progress on gender equality in the field of corporate social responsibility (CSR) might contribute to broader EU gender and sustainability objectives. It focuses on corporations and citizenship, and on company stakeholder relations (SR) in particular. While the literature on SR has previously engaged with scholarship on feminist ethics, and in particular the 'ethics of care', this paper draws upon the feminist citizenship and feminist ethics literature, and upon gender mainstreaming strategy to suggest a more comprehensive approach to gender equality within SR. The aim is to extend our understanding of CSR as a potential policy instrument to advance gender equality.     

Marketing images of gender: A visual analysis

An interpretive method drawing from social psychology, feminist theory and art criticism is developed to analyze contemporary images of gender. Utilizing and expanding upon visual research techniques, a selection of ads from contemporary fashion magazines and catalogs was assembled to illustrate particular themes suggested by research on the representation of gender in advertising. The body‐and what it expresses‐is a site of central concern, and discussion focuses on how female and male bodies are represented in advertising. The conventions of art history, when framed within a social science perspective, offer unique contributions to the study of advertising and gender, well suited for researchers interested in the culture of consumption.     

Gendered consumer competences in households with one vs. two adults1

Consumption is gendered. Some markets can be described as female‐dominated, while others can be described as male‐dominated consumer areas. The departure of this article is observed gender differences in consumer competences, measured by men and women's self‐reported efforts to stay informed on different markets. Three central gender research hypotheses are applied to investigate the observed gender differences in consumer competences. Nowadays, modern consumer markets are characterized by abundance, complexity and rapid changes, making it hardly possible for any consumer to master all markets he or she operates in. Because very much of the consumption takes place within the households, it should be convenient to live in a household with two adult persons who can share responsibilities and stay informed on the different segments of the markets. However, many households consist of only one adult person. Our main concern has been to investigate whether the observed gender differences in consumer competences could be explained by the specializing hypothesis, i.e. that the gendered pattern relies on a gendered division of consumer competences within couple households; in other words, that gender differences in consumer competences among single‐person households should be absent, or significantly lower, than among couple households. In case we would not find support for the specializing hypothesis, two other probable explanations are also put forward: the traditional gender difference hypothesis and the selection hypothesis. These three hypotheses are tested in a data material based on 2000 telephone interviews from the SIFO survey, collected in 2007.     

Feminism’s fourth wave: a research agenda for marketing and consumer research

Abstract

Three waves of feminism each reveal a very different relationship with marketing. This commentary considers these relationships in the light of what is now frequently being hailed as the fourth wave, a resurgence of feminism that is driven by younger women who harness the power of the Internet and social media to challenge gender inequity. The commentary looks at what distinguishes the fourth wave from its predecessors and highlights key areas in marketing and consumer research where feminist perspectives are sorely required.     

Reframing gender and feminist knowledge construction in marketing and consumer research: missing feminisms and the case of men and masculinities

Abstract

Gender has been theorised and studied in many ways and across different disciplines. Although a number of these theorisations have been recognised and adopted in marketing and consumer research, the significance of feminism in knowledge construction has largely remained what we would call ‘unfinished’. Based on a critical reframing of gender research in marketing and consumer research, in dialogue with feminist theory, this article offers theoretical and practical suggestions for how to reinvigorate these research efforts. The analysis highlights dominant theorisations of gender, relating to gender as variable, difference and role; as fundamental difference and structuring; and as cultural and identity constructions. This reframing emphasises various neglected or ‘missing feminisms’, including queer theory; critical race, intersectional and transnational feminisms; material-discursive feminism; and critical studies on men and masculinities. A more detailed discussion of the latter, as a relatively new, growing and politically contentious area, is further developed to highlight more specifically which feminist and gender theories are mainly in use in marketing and consumer research and which are little or not used. In the light of this, it is argued that marketing and related disciplines have thus far largely neglected several key contemporary gender and feminist theorisations, particularly those that centre on gender power relations. The potential impact of these theoretical frames on transdisciplinary studies in marketing and consumer research and research agenda(s) is discussed.     

Postmodern Paralysis: The Critical Impasse in Feminist Perspectives on Consumers

Critical perspectives on theory play an important and valued role in disciplines across the academy. Feminist perspectives might be expected to be at or near the forefront of critical engagement with consumer behaviour theory, especially given the importance of gender in consumer research. Following a brief upsurge during the 1990s, critical feminist voices have been muted of late. This paper explores some reasons for this. It begins with a brief overview of research on gender and consumer behaviour and how insights from feminist theories and feminist activism began to alter our understanding of gendered consumption. It then discusses how postmodern and postfeminist perspectives have diluted feminism as a critique of gendered consumption. Finally, it argues that a return to materialist feminism would open up possibilities for new and more critical analyses of gendered consumption.     

CEO gender,institutional context and firm exports

To what extent does the gender of Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) matter in the relationship between home country corruption and firm exports? Drawing on post-structural feminist and institutional theories, we employ self-reported micro-level and cross-country data from 4714 firms in 75 countries during 2008-2015 to examine how differences in institutional contexts affect firms exports in men- and women-led firms. We find that pervasive and arbitrary corruption types have different effects on firm exports, and that female CEOs mitigate the effects of corruption in two distinct ways. Our results contribute to institutional and post-structural feminist literature, and are robust when controlling for economic development and the quality of gender institutional characteristics. Our study suggests that female CEOs in developing and emerging economies will be less vulnerable to predictably-corrupt institutions than to uncertain institutions.     

The Utility of the Relationship Metaphor in Consumer Markets: A Critical Evaluation

The popularity currently enjoyed by relationship marketing obscures a host of problems relating to the apparent domain extension into consumer markets. Such problems are argued to include: the lack of an accepted definition; fragmented and limited theory development; a boundary-less domain and a limited understanding of exchange relationships (Buttle, 1996; Gummesson, 1997; Wilson, 1995). This paper contends that the root of these difficulties lies in the process of metaphoric transfer (Hunt and Menon, 1995). As such there is a need to review the role of metaphor within academic research generally, and to investigate the extent to which the metaphor of interpersonal relationships remains apposite within the domain of consumer markets. In attempting to address this issue, the paper appraises the process of metaphoric transfer, evaluates the utility of the interpersonal relationship metaphor in the context of mass consumer markets and highlights a number of important implications for theory development in this field. Finally, the paper offers some directions for further research.     

Collaborating for success: managerial perspectives on co-branding strategies in the fashion industry

Abstract

This article investigates the nature of co-branded relationships within the fashion industry. Existing co-branding literature focuses heavily on consumer evaluations, and many studies explore FMCG and electronics markets, within which ingredient co-branding is common. When two brands from the fashion industry collaborate, both brands exist independently and do not rely on ‘ingredients’ for developing a new product and, therefore, presenting an opportunity for exploring the drivers and types of relationships that could exist. This study adopts an interpretive method of investigation using in-depth interviews with brand managers. Findings provide empirical support for value creation through different relationship levels (such as brand/awareness co-branding, values endorsement and complementary competence co-branding) while highlighting some challenges and risks for co-branding in practice. This article discusses implications for theory development and practice and highlights avenues for future research.     

Choice,diversity and ‘false consciousness’ in women's careers

The central theme of this paper is that contemporary literature concerning women's careers is based on assumptions held by researchers and not actually on views held by women themselves. Many feminist researchers are guilty of assuming ‘false consciousness’ on the part of their subjects by explaining these women as being victims of gender or patriarchal systems instead of making a mindful decision founded on choice. The empirical work draws on in‐depth interviews with 39 women architects. Of the 39 women interviewed, 20 had adopted alternative ways of working in the sense that they had rejected the conventional career within an organization. Their reasons for this were diverse and ranged from wanting to combine child or elder care with work; involvement in local politics; wanting time for further study or sporting activities; as well as just not wanting to work full‐time. In short, this research demonstrates that work is not always a central interest in the lives of individuals and supports Hakim's view of heterogeneity among women.     

The paradox of new venture legitimation within an entrepreneurial ecosystem

The current rise in research on entrepreneurial ecosystems notes that many questions are still unanswered. We, therefore, theorize about a unique paradox for entrepreneurs trying to establish legitimacy for their new ventures within and beyond an entrepreneurial ecosystem; that is, when pursuing opportunities with high levels of technological or market newness, entrepreneurs confront a significant challenge in legitimizing their venture within an entrepreneurial ecosystem, while those entrepreneurs pursuing ventures using existing technologies or pursuing existing markets have a much easier path to garnering legitimacy within that ecosystem. However, the diffusion of that legitimacy beyond the ecosystem will be wider and more far-reaching for those pursuing the newer elements compared to those using existing technologies or pursuing existing markets, thus, creating a paradox of venture legitimation. Prior research outlines approaches for new venture legitimacy but it is unclear when these approaches should be applied within and beyond an entrepreneurial ecosystem. To address this paradox, we integrate ideas from the entrepreneurship and innovation literature with insights from the legitimacy literature to describe how different types of venture newness employ different legitimation strategies which results in different levels of legitimacy diffusion beyond an ecosystem. We conclude with a discussion of our concepts and offer suggestions for future research efforts.     

市场化转型中的城市女性失业：理论观点与实证发现

关于中国经济转型时期劳动力市场性别不平等的研究 ,现有文献涉及了根基于中国传统文化的性别歧视和旧的国家再分配体制与新兴市场机制的交互作用。围绕就业 (失业 )的性别不平等 ,归纳、提炼理论观点 ,提出研究假设 ,利用第五次全国人口普查抽样数据进行实证分析。分析显示 ,在两性就业差异上 ,没有发现性别歧视的作用 ;旧的国家再分配与新兴的市场机制对失业性别差异的交互影响作用于中低学历女性劳动者 ,而且这种作用是暂时的。这意味着 ,性别不平等的“自身逻辑”可能成为未来研究的主要关注点     

Managing socio-political risk at the subnational level: Lessons from MNE subsidiaries in Indonesia

Within emerging markets, institutional conditions vary significantly at both the country and subnational levels. Although the extant literature recognises the types of risk faced by multinational enterprises (MNEs) in emerging markets, it has hitherto paid scarce attention to explaining how MNEs manage such risk at the subnational level. Reporting on four case studies from Indonesia, we outline how MNEs ensure their success by maintaining active relationships with a variety of non-market actors—including opinion leaders, government officials, and communities at the subnational level. In our study, we developed a conceptual framework, showcasing how MNEs can manage socio-political risk within heterogeneous institutional settings.     

Women, Management and Globalization in the Middle East

This paper provides new theoretical insights into the interconnections and relationships between women, management and globalization in the Middle East (ME). The discussion is positioned within broader globalization debates about women’s social status in ME economies. Based on case study evidence and the UN datasets, the article critiques social, cultural and economic reasons for women’s limited advancement in the public sphere. These include the prevalence of the patriarchal work contract within public and private institutions, as well as cultural and ethical values which create strongly defined gender roles. The discussion examines the complexities of conceptualizing women’s equality and empowerment in Islamic states. The paper reveals that there have been significant achievements in advancing women in leadership and political roles, but that there are still institutional and cultural barriers embedded in business systems. Linking feminist, development and management theoretical strands a development framework is proposed which is sensitive to the Islamic Shar’ia encompassing government, organization and individual level strategies. It is suggested that scholars should integrate literatures from gender and management, development and Middle East studies, and in particular that critical scholars of gender and organization should consider the interrelations of the national and transnational in critiques of contemporary global capitalism to understand the complexity of women and social change in the ME.     

Language and market inclusivity for women entrepreneurship: the case of microfinance

Inclusive markets are key to fostering female entrepreneurship, and the microfinance sector has recognized and acted on this. Existing research has studied how institutions and organizational factors facilitate the process by which microfinance and other financial intermediaries tackle gender-based financial exclusion. But while the role of cultural institutions has been recognized as important, little research has systematically integrated culture in the study of gender-based financial exclusion. We posit that language is a cultural institution that influences the extent to which financial intermediaries are successful in outreaching women and supporting female entrepreneurship. Inspired by a performativity approach, we develop a set of hypotheses that delineate how a specific feature of language, gender marking in grammar, moderates the role of institutional (state capacity) and organizational (NGO status and global ties) factors in shaping microfinance outreach to women. Using the ratio of female to male borrowers in 2361 microfinance organizations from 115 countries during the period 1995–2015, we confirm that market inclusion of women depends on organizational and institutional factors, and that gender marking in grammar influences those relationships.     

Cross-cultural study of channel relationship factors — Antecedents of satisfaction in a retail setting: A commentary essay

Channel relationships within and across diverse markets have been investigated for quite some time. Yet findings from these studies over the last forty years or so have been far from conclusive. Channel researchers Runyan, Sternquist, and Chung (forthcoming) investigate interrelationships between the behavioral constructs of role performance, dependence, conflict, satisfaction, and influence strategy in the U.S. and Japanese context. Reading this paper leads credence to the adage, “The more things change, the more they stay the same.” Indeed, a review of representative comparative channels research literature from the 1980s and post-2000 brings to surface striking similarities in terms of shaky conceptual frameworks, less than robust construct measures, and insufficient caveats in explaining and applying research findings. For channels research to gain relevance in today's globalized marketplace, greater sophistication is necessary in formulating and implementing comparative studies. An overarching framework is necessary to explain, if not incorporate, similarities and differences in channel interactions around the globe.     

Mentoring in organizations: Implications for women

This paper reviews the literature on the mentoring process in organizations and why mentoring can be critical to the career success of women managers and professionals. It examines some of the reasons why it is more difficult for women to find mentors than it is for men. Particular attention is paid to potential problems in cross-gender mentoring. A feminist perspective is then applied to the general notion of mentorships for women. The paper concludes with an examination of what organizations can do to further mentor relationships and an agenda for further research in this area.     

The extension of animosity model of foreign product purchase: Does country of origin matter?

Although a growing literature has investigated how animosity and consumer ethnocentrism change customers’ perceptions of foreign products in developed markets, research examining these effects in developing markets is scarce. Additionally, the role of country of origin on such effects has received far less attention. The current paper is developed to bridge these gaps. The primary objectives of this paper are to examine whether the animosity and consumer ethnocentrism models that work in the Western world could be applied into a developing market like Vietnam, and whether these relationships are moderated by country of origin (USA versus China). Data from 485 Vietnamese customers illustrate that most of the main effects are significant except for the relationship between ethnocentrism and product judgement, and the relationship between cosmopolitanism and willingness to buy. Furthermore, out of the three moderation effects, the influence of country of origin on the relationship between ethnocentrism and willingness to buy is significant. The paper concludes with theoretical and managerial implications, limitations, and future research.     

女性主义肥皂剧研究方法评析

女性主义肥皂剧在研究方法上强调性别概念。特别是女性体验，借鉴了美国主流传媒学派和英国文化研究学派的研究方法，对传统社会科学的研究方法进行了革新。当然无论是早期运用较多的量化研究，还是更受推崇的定性研究都有其阙如之处，这和女性主义研究者本身矛盾的立场有关。     

Muslim millennials’ attitudes towards fashion advertising

Abstract

Recognizing the rapid growth of fashion marketing efforts in Muslim consumer markets, this article aims to investigate attitudes towards fashion advertising between Muslim millennials from two countries of diverse advertising environments. The conceptual framework used for investigation was adapted from an existing framework for attitudes towards advertising. A sample of young millennials (n?=?1,691) responded to a questionnaire-based survey measuring items related to beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors towards fashion advertising, in addition to religiosity and fashion consciousness. Analysis of hypothesis testing was performed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Findings revealed that beliefs towards fashion advertising may be grouped into positive and negative factors which influence attitudes towards fashion advertising. Additionally, fashion consciousness also influences Muslim millennials’ attitudes towards fashion advertising. This article also examined the diversity of Muslim millennials in terms of religiosity, gender, and advertising environment on beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors towards fashion advertising. Analysis of group comparisons was done after establishing measurement invariance in Multi-group Confirmatory Analysis (CFA). Differences in attitudes towards fashion advertising across religiosity, gender, and cross-national groups illustrate the diversity within Muslim millennials. These differences are explained in terms of differences in antecedent positive and negative beliefs. This article contributes to the literature of attitudes towards advertising by illustrating the influence of gender, religiosity, and advertising environment on attitudes towards fashion advertising in diverse Muslim markets.