Tourism: a sacred journey? The case of ashram tourism,India

Religious tourism — tourism that is motivated by faith or religious reasons — has been in evidence for centuries. In more recent times, however, it has been suggested that modern tourism has become the functional and symbolic equivalent of more traditional religious practices, such as festivals and pilgrimages. In other words, it is claimed by some that tourism is a sacred journey. To date, however, little work has been undertaken to explore this position; the purpose of this paper, therefore, is to contribute to this debate. Based on an exploratory study, it considers the motivations and experiences of Western tourists visiting the Sri Aurobindo Ashram and the nearby utopian township of Auroville in Pondicherry, south east India. It identifies two principal groups of visitors, namely ‘permanent tourists’ who have immersed themselves indefinitely in a spiritual ‘Other’, and temporary visitors. The latter are categorised into sub‐groups which point to a variety of spiritual and non‐spiritual motives. The paper concludes that there is a continuum of spirituality inherent in tourism, though this is related to tourists' experience rather than initial motivation. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tourism demand modelling: some issues regarding unit roots,co‐integration and diagnostic tests

This paper investigates the all important issue of diagnostic tests, including unit roots and cointegration, in the tourism demand modelling literature. The origins of this study lie in the apparent lack in the tourism economics literature of detail concerning the diagnostic test aspect. Study of this deficiency has suggested that previous literature on tourism demand modelling may be divided into two categories: the pre‐1995 and post‐1995 studies. It was found that the pre‐1995 and some post‐1995 studies have ignored unit root tests and co‐integration and, hence, are vulnerable to the so‐called ‘spurious regression’ problem. In highlighting the key diagnostic tests reported by post‐1995 studies, this paper contends that there is no need to report the autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH) test, which is applicable only to financial market analysis where the dependent variable is return on an asset. More generally, heteroskedasticity is not seen as a problem in time‐series data. However, the reporting of a greater than necessary range of diagnostic tests — some of which do not have any theoretical justification with regard to tourism demand analysis — does not diminish the precision of the results or the model. This paper should appeal to scholars involved in tourism demand modelling. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Entrepreneurship and indigenous enterpreneurs in religious tourism in India

This paper demonstrates how indigenous religious entrepreneurs drive religious tourism in a non‐western context. Building on the case study of Vrindavan, an emerging religious tourism destination in India, it explains religious tourism as a natural progression of traditional pilgrimage economy, where entrepreneurship springs from socio‐cultural and ritual exchanges and knowledge of religious protocols and procedures between indigenous religious functionaries and visitors. Using religious hegemony, social status and networks, religious entrepreneurs innovate, develop new products and expand the cultural economy of rituals and performances to suit the demands of the burgeoning tourism. The tendency to consider such entrepreneurship as ‘informal’ not only exempts them from most regulations and legal responsibilities but also undermines their contribution in maintaining the ‘religious’ — the most important resource in religious tourism. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Planning Host and Guest Interactions: Moving Beyond the Empty Meeting Ground in African Encounters

In many senses viewing the ‘other’ has always been a part of the tourist activity of dominant cultures. The ‘other’ has been seen as a source of difference and excitement with possibilities for exotic pleasure while at the same time dominant cultures have reinforced their own sense of superiority through viewing the ‘other’. The view from the ‘other’ is now becoming a part of tourism research and enabling mechanisms for this view are being developed in tourism planning. This paper seeks to examine how we can move beyond MacCannell’s view of the contact between tourists and hosts as an ‘empty meeting ground’. Just as postcolonial theorists have been critical of the exclusion of the ‘other’ in tourism theory, we argue for the voice of the ‘other’ to be heard in tourism planning practices. In this paper we examine the extent this is able to bring benefits to the process of community-based tourist development in developing countries such as Tanzania and Kenya. The paper theoretically scrutinises the relation between and the fluidity of the concepts of tourism, communities and power and the actuality of approaches to tourism planning that do not involve a submissive, subservient, exoticised and inferiorised view of the ‘other’. The particulars of inclusion of the voice of the ‘other’ bring some fresh insights to Western notions of community-based tourism planning.     

Cultural tourism as salvation for petty capitalists: the pedicab drivers of the Las Vegas of the east

‘Petty capitalism’ refers to the informal self-employment engaged in by the unskilled poor in order to earn or augment their income. In the tourism industry, they work as unlicensed souvenir vendors, street-food hawkers, drivers, prostitutes, etc. The pedicab drivers of Macao belong to this category of petty capitalists. Drawing on thematic interviews supplemented by observational data, this article documents how the pedicab drivers of Macao survive and keep a sense of self-worth after the near annihilation of their industry as a result of urbanization, and how tourism has been, in addition to government support, a positive social change agent that allowed them to survive. The small literature on pedicabs either documents the marginal lifestyle and poverty of their drivers as informal tourism workers, often in the developing world, or look at pedicab as a sustainable activity in the tourism sector. The findings of this article address two gaps, namely, (1) a lack of documentation on the working life of the pedicab drivers as petty capitalists in a highly urbanized environment and on their degree of self-worth (2) a comparative lack of testimonials on how tourism can be a powerful agent in the ‘worldmaking’ that is in the creation of change.     

Selling adventure tourism: a distribution channels perspective

This paper examines the distribution channels structure as well as the underlying factors influencing the most prominent channel choices within the adventure tourism industry. It is based on in‐depth interviews with adventure tourism operators in Queenstown, New Zealand. The findings suggest that the distribution structure is similar to other attraction sectors and that business size has some bearing on the ‘length’ of the distribution chains. However, regardless of business size, the sector places a clear priority on ‘at destination’ distribution, and the factors underlying this choice were found to be varied and reflective of both sector‐specific demand and supply characteristics. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The development of olive tourism in Western Australia: a case study of an emerging tourism industry

The recent development of olive growing in Western Australia, and its amalgamation with tourism and hospitality, provides opportunities for growers to showcase their products and for visitors to experience olive‐tasting and learn about an ancient food culture and rural activity ‘transplanted’ into the ‘New World’ from its ‘Old World’ roots. The present study examines the dimensions of this emerging niche market in Western Australia. Face‐to‐face and telephone interviews were conducted among 23 small olive‐growing operations located in this region to understand their scope for developing olive tourism. Overall, respondents' comments suggest that their involvement in olive tourism and hospitality could substantially provide benefits for visitors to rural areas and become a complementary alternative to other activities. To fulfil this potential, however, growers heavily rely on greater collaboration within their own industry, as well as on local authorities and tourism bodies in ways that include assistance, partnerships and promotion. Moreover, collaboration between olive growers and regional/tourism stakeholders, as well as government support may not only contribute to the sustainability of olive growing, but also to the emergence of olive tourism. In turn, these developments may also help develop a culinary identity and a tourism concept that may help minimise the threats of outside competition (cheaper olive imports) and rural decline. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rural tourism — meeting the challenges of the new South Africa

Rural tourism in South Africa has undergone fundamental change since the advent of political democracy in 1995. Previously perceived as a ‘white man's thing’, rural tourism is increasingly finding a home amongst South Africa's formerly marginalised rural communities. The country has considerable potential in attracting tourists in search of new, exciting experiences in areas of unexploited natural beauty and rich cultural resources. The concept of rural tourism has mushroomed to include adventure tourism activities, cultural tourism and, lately, a new phenomenon in rural communities known as ‘township tourism’. There are, however, substantial challenges to be overcome if the rural tourism sector is to achieve its goals. These include a lack of capacity at local government level, the difficulties involved in operationalising community‐based rural tourism and the dearth of entrepreneurial expertise, management skills and capital with which to expand the rural tourism infrastructure. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

e‐Participation Model for Sustainable Cultural Tourism Management: a Bottom‐Up Approach

The paper presents a ‘bottom‐up approach’ for cultural tourism management, based on the development of an e‐participation website for an Italian city, where the stakeholders are placed at the centre of the decisional process. The analysis provides an indication on how to personalize and differentiate the cultural tourism offer according to the stakeholders’ perspectives and to specific territorial characteristics. Innovative techniques of stakeholders’ engagement are offered by information and communication technologies tools that can play a vital role in today's cultural destinations. However, the study shows that the Web is yet to be utilized as an effective tool in stakeholders’ participation processes. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

‘We make more money now,but we don’t talk to each other anymore’: on new tourism and capitalism in the Danube Delta

ABSTRACT

In 1991, the Danube Delta (Romania), famous for its biodiversity, became a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Tourists have been a constant presence in this area for more than 50 years, being accommodated exclusively, informally, in the local fishing households. Relying on extended participant observation and semi-structured interviews as the main research methods, this study presents how locals from a fishing village relate to tourism and how this process leaves a significant imprint on their social organization, use of natural resources, household economy, norms and values. Exposed to new ideas, opportunities and challenges brought in by tourism, locals are not being swept away, as many of the studies in anthropology of fishing and tourism suggest, but rather act like ‘individuals with agency’, actually empowered by tourism; local fishing and women’s traditional role as ‘the manager of the household’ are reinforced by tourists’ demands for ‘home-cooked fish dish’ and local accommodation. On the other hand, the new tourism has launched local families into a constant competition for natural resources, eroding social cohesion while leading to a commodification of family relationships.     

Developing metropolitan tourism on the fringe of central London

The paper examines the growth of a ‘new tourism area’ in Islington, north London — a locality that lacks a large attraction, acknowledged distinctive heritage and has not been planned as a destination. We review supply side changes and link them to the recent literature on economic and spatial trends in cities, particularly the role of amenity. We report on a survey of Islington visitors that shows they are drawn by distinctive qualities of place rather than particular attractions. The visitors have characteristics that distinguish them from visitors to London as a whole, but we speculate that they have similarities to Islington workers and residents in their search for amenity, entertainment and high‐level consumption services. In the final section of the paper we explore the consequences of our findings for understanding the growth of urban tourism. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The self‐presentation and self‐development of serious wildlife tourists

The notion of self‐concept and choice of tourism products has yet to be applied to wildlife tourism. The question of how consumers perceive themselves is considered fundamental to understanding purchase and consumption behaviours. This ethnographic study is based upon ‘serious’ wildlife tourism participants, for whom studying fauna and flora is the primary motivation for travel. The findings demonstrate how the ‘culture’ of ‘serious’ wildlife tourism is made up of individuals who differentiate themselves from other tourists in terms of dress, behaviour, development of skills, equipment and intellectual capital, illustrated by their desire to scope, identify and photograph wildlife. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Red tourism: sustaining communist identity in a rapidly changing China

‘Red tourism’ is to exploit the historical heritage of the Chinese Communist Party for tourism development. Such tourism practice has been used by the nation state of China both to drive the country's economic growth and develop new patronage of the communist ideology among the young generation. From the broader context of China's economic and social changes since 1978 when the country started its open-door policy and economic reform, our paper attempts to examine ‘red tourism’ by analyzing how the nation state of China promotes the communist heritage through ‘red tourism’ in order to sustain the communist identity in a rapidly changing China. Research questions are raised to address the economic and social factors for the nation state involvement in ‘red tourism’: the specific roles of such involvement and the outcomes. Based on a case study, this paper presents how heritage is interpreted at a specific ‘red tourism’ site in order to portray a selective part of the communist heritage as a symbol of the Chinese nation. In so doing, ‘red tourism’ aims to serve the purpose of the nation state to sustain the communist identity in the continuing effort of developing a ‘socialist country of Chinese characteristics’.     

Analysing tourist satisfaction at a mature and multi-product destination

The current study examines the meaning of ‘home’ and ‘away’ among visiting friends and relatives (VFR) tourists, utilising the multidimensional model suggested by Uriely [(2010). ‘Home’ and ‘away’ in VFR tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 37(3), 857–860] to assess the VFR experience. Despite recent conceptualisations that emphasise the intersection of tourism and everyday life in various ways, as is prominently exemplified in VFR tourism, this empirical investigation provides evidence as to the limitations of this perspective. Specifically, the findings of this study indicate that when staying at friends and relatives, VFR tourists may feel at ‘home’ in terms of familiarity with place, but they also often experience feelings of ‘away’, in the sense of the loss of privacy and the limited situational control involved in this situation. As a result, the study points to the need to understand tourism, in general, and VFR, in particular, as complex phenomena in which elements of both ‘extraordinary’ and ‘everydayness’ coexist. The conclusion also discusses the marketing implications of the study and provides suggestions for future research.     

Rural Tourism Partnerships and Actor Mobility

In this paper, I examine actor mobility within the context of rural tourism partnerships (RTPs). The term ‘actor’ refers to those who have a stake in tourism planning, promotion and development such as policy makers, businesses, non‐profit making sector and community groups. Mobility is embedded in personal and social histories of actors as well as the policy framework that impacts their daily lives and informs their motives for being (dis)associated with RTPs. While exploring how actors' journeys transform rural localities' socio‐economic fabric, I find the writings of Lefebvre and de Certeau particularly useful because of their focus on counter‐hegemonic practices that shape the ‘everyday life’. Given that most rural societies in current times comprise an intricate mix of long‐term residents, seasonal‐home owners and migrants, each with their distinct set of life stories and value preferences with regard to their place of dwelling, my thrust in this paper on actor mobility is likely to identify new areas of future research on RTPs. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The influence of service performance and destination resources on consumer behaviour: a case study of mainland Chinese tourists to Kinmen

This paper draws upon the responses of 603 mainland Chinese tourists in Kinmen and attempts to understand their consumer behavior on the aspects of intentions, preferences, decision‐making process, satisfaction, and willingness to revisit. Variables such as service performance and destination resources that affect visitor's satisfaction are also tested. The findings reflect a ‘myth of mysteriousness’ of mainland Chinese visitors to the destination and suggest that it is essential for the market segmentation to participate in the tourism planning of Kinmen to develop an integrated policy for promotion and marketing, in order to enhance consumers' interest. In addition, this research has implications for tourism planning in Kinmen and provides references for other destinations striving for tourists from mainland China. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

In the family home: roots tourism among Greek second generation in Italy

This paper attempts to make a contribution to the niche area of roots tourism and the broader nexus of tourism and migration, in particular to the literature on roots tourism among second generation, which has only recently attracted scholarly attention. Despite a gradual increase in scientific contributions on roots tourism, most of the literature has focused on the experiences of the first, second and later generations as a single phenomenon. The principal originality of this work lies in the analysis on roots tourism in an under-explored geographical/ethnic context, that is Greek second generation in Italy. The purpose of this study, which is based on an analysis method that combines structured questionnaire data with life stories collected through in-depth interviews, is to analyse the relationship between second-generation Greek migrants’ attachment to the birth-country of their parents and their homeland travel. Specifically, frequency and reasons for their travelling, self-perception during their stay in Greece and their definition of ‘home’ are investigated. The results of the study show that frequent journeys to Greece are crammed with a much deeper meaning as they are transnational practices aimed at visiting relatives and friends, the desire to find cultural roots and relocating cultural identity.     

Tourist narratives about the dissonant heritage of the Borderlands: the case of South-eastern Poland

ABSTRACT

One of the important effects of the political transformation after 1989 in Eastern Europe is the development of tourism and increasing mobility of citizens from many countries, previously separated by the ‘Iron Curtain’. The process of economic and socio-cultural change justifies the debate regarding the future, but also on the legacy of the past. As for South-eastern Poland, tourism has been used as an important narrative tool for spreading, strengthening or weakening ethnic and national stereotypes by promoting cultural resources and performances that enable cooperation and mutual understanding. However, it can also be a source of potential fears or conflicts, for instance by creating controversial tourist attractions and stories about certain historical events. This paper discusses strategies of ‘past presencing’ of the heritage of South-eastern Poland border regions in public life, culture and tourism, drawing on a few examples which show different ways of restoring the memory of the former Eastern Borderlands. The theme village called ‘The Borderland Settlement’ and the historical reconstruction ‘Volyn 1943–2013’ relate to the main myths and the active memory concept that frame tourist narratives and contribute to the reinvention and reinterpretation of dissonant heritage.     

Relationship between cross-cultural attitudes and attitudes toward the foreign language study of tourism majors: the South Korean Case

Cross-cultural attitudes are gaining more importance as contacts between people from different cultures are increasing in a globalized world. This is particularly the case and relevant for the tourism industry. The major purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between cross-cultural attitudes and the attitudes toward foreign language within the tourism education context. An empirical study of 482 tourism students in South Korea revealed that cross-cultural attitudes had significant associations with attitudes toward studying a foreign language. Specifically, the ‘integrative attitude’, among the three types of attitudes toward foreign language study, showed the highest relationship with the ‘cross-cultural attitude’, being followed by the ‘intrinsically motivated attitude’. However, the ‘instrumental attitude’ showed no significant relationship. Based on these findings, a need to approach language study from cultural perspectives is emphasized, suggesting a provision of programs and activities inspiring direct and indirect contacts with foreign cultures and people. The integration of cultural aspects of the tourism industry into foreign language study was also discussed in this context. Finally, the study's results were compared with those of previous studies and a tentative generalization that foreign language study has an effect in reducing social distance was proposed.