Black market exchange rates in India: an empirical analysis

In this paper, we explore the determinants of black market (BM) exchange rates in India using annual data from 1955–1994 and integration and cointegration analysis. Two important factors, namely the import capacity of official foreign exchange reserves and restrictions on international trade, have largely been ignored as determinants of BM rates. We stress the importance of these two factors and incorporate them, with others more familiar in the literature, in our theoretical and empirical model for BM rates in India. Our empirical findings show that a low level of official foreign exchange reserves negatively and a high level of trade restrictions positively affect BM rates. We show that the flexible Bretton Woods exchange rate policies for India in 1973 have a negative impact on BM rates. The results also reveal that interest rate policies positively affect BM rates. Thus, our empirical model lends support to the trade and monetary approaches to BM rates and hence, trade restrictions with excess money supply should be removed to eliminate the BMs for forex in India. First Version Received: September 98/Final Version Received: January 2000     

Expectations and the Black Market Premium

The purpose of this paper is to gain a better understanding of the black market premium—the percentage differential between the black market and the official exchange rate. Tests are used to see whether the black market premium responds to variations in expectations about the official exchange rate in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico. Expectations of devaluation do cause movements in the black market premium for Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico but this behavior is not observed for Colombia. Colombian economic agents seem less sensitive to expected returns. This perhaps explains the relatively flat black market premium series observed for Colombia.     

The real exchange rate and the black market exchange rate in developing countries

This article tests for the validity of the Purchasing power parity (PPP) theory using both the black market and the official exchange rates for panels with cross sectional dependency. The test is conducted using a newly developed, nonlinear IV panel unit root test that properly handles cross-sectional dependency for thirty-seven developing countries. We find that the null of joint unit root hypothesis is rejected for the whole panel, using the black market exchange rate, and for sub-panels of African and high inflation countries, using either exchange rate. The black market-based real exchange rates are, therefore, shown to provide stronger evidence for the purchasing power parity theory than do the official rates. This finding is consistent with the observation that black market exchange rates better represent market forces and thus are more relevant when testing for the validity of the PPP theory in developing countries.     

THE EFFECTS OF ALTERNATIVE EXCHANGE RATE REGIMES ON REAL EXCHANGE RATE VOLATILITY: EVIDENCE BASED ON A NEW DATASET

Do alternative exchange rate regimes affect short‐term real exchange rate volatility differently? The existing empirical evidence is quite mixed with slightly more papers supporting that they do. We show that such lack of consensus is mainly due to current literature limitations regarding the measurement of real exchange rates (RERs), the identification of exchange rate regimes (ERRs), and the control for the incidence of real and nominal shocks. To address these limitations, we construct a novel monthly dataset for 63 countries over the period 1946–2007, which includes market‐determined multilateral RER and a proxy for terms of trade. We find that ERRs indeed affect short‐term real exchange rate volatility differently. While the evidence is generally consistent with Mussa's sticky prices argument, we find that for nonadvanced countries in post‐Bretton Woods there exists a “U‐shape nominal flexibility puzzle of RER.” We also find evidence of a “short‐run RER volatility puzzle.” Having controlled for the incidence of real and nominal shocks, nonadvanced countries' RER volatility remains between 25% and 150% greater than that of the advanced economies. Moreover, the key literature finding that short‐term RER volatility is higher in Bretton Woods (BW) than in post‐Bretton Woods (PBW) for industrialized countries vanishes when using market‐determined multilateral RER instead of official bilateral RER. (JEL F31, F33, F41)     

Currency appreciation and stock market performance: Evidence from China

This paper analyzes the relationship between the change of the exchange rate and the performance of the Chinese stock market after exchange rate regime and split share structure of stock market reformed in 2005, which is important for us to understand the linkages and mechanisms between the two markets deeply. We find that the exchange rate is highly related with the stock market, and there exists long-term cointegration. The results demonstrate that in the long term, the relationship between the two variables mainly belongs to flow-oriented model; Shanghai A Share index is influenced by the exchange rate, yet Shanghai B Share index has shown less indication of long term interrelation with the exchange rate. In the short term, the relationship between the two variables mainly belongs to stock-oriented models, there are inter influence between the stock market and the exchange market. The paper further analyzes the possible influence of different sector indices to exchange rates. Finally, the paper puts forward some advices and policy suggestions.     

汇率与股价变动关系:基于汇改后数据的实证研究

研究我国2005年7月汇率制度改革后汇率与股市的关系及其传导机制,有助于深刻认识金融市场联动特征,对于防范金融市场风险和完善我国资本市场、外汇市场等的改革具有重要的理论和实践意义。本文实证发现了汇率和股价存在着长期均衡的协整关系;从长期来看,两者关系符合流量导向模型,上证指数受到汇率长期影响,从短期来看,股市和汇市存在着交互影响,汇率变化影响股指变动有时滞。运用滚动窗口的Granger检验和加入其他重要宏观变量的多变量协整检验,本文证明了这种长期关系具有较强的稳健性。进一步从板块指数与汇率的关系来看,房地产、金融、民航、石化、钢铁指数均与汇率存在着长期的协整关系,汇率变化是这些板块指数的Granger原因。最后,本文对实证结果做出分析并指出了相应的政策含义。     

MONETARY CREDIBILITY VS. VOTER APPROVAL: POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS AND EXCHANGE‐RATE STABILIZATION DURING CRISES

This paper analyzes how political institutions affect the execution of exchange‐rate policy. By focusing on policy‐makers' responses to the emergence of speculative pressure on their currencies, we argue that the effect of democratic institutions on exchange‐rate stability is likely to be conditioned by the officially announced exchange‐rate regime. Officially fixed exchange rates are the main instrument of autocrats to signal commitment to long‐term stability. Autocratic governments with strictly fixed exchange rates are thus more likely to defend their exchange rates than autocrats with an intermediate regime because the latter implicitly signal that they care less about monetary stability. In contrast, democrats defend more often in intermediately than in fully fixed official regimes by using a combination of external and internal adjustments, which reduce the negative effects of a devaluation on voters. Our analysis of 189 currency crises between 1975 and 1999 supports this conditional effect.     

Does black market exchange rate volatility deter the trade flows? Iranian experience

Previous studies that investigated the impact of exchange rate volatility on the trade flows, employed official exchange rate data to construct a measure of exchange rate uncertainty. In this paper we show that in countries that there is a black market for foreign exchange, the black market exchange rate volatility could have adverse effect on the trade flows. We show this by using data from Iran and cointegration analysis.     

BLACK MARKET EXCHANGE RATES AND CAPITAL MOBILITY IN ASIAN ECONOMIES

This paper examines whether foreign exchange black markets have eroded the effectiveness of capital controls and contributed to an increase in the effective degree of capital mobility in a sample of Asian countries. Comparing the uncovered interest parity forecast errors between the official and black market exchange rates suggests that in those countries with more stringent capital controls, foreign exchange black markets have reached a maturity level to threaten the effectiveness of those controls.     

The black market exchange rate and demand for money in sixteen developing countries

Using data for a sample of 16 diverse countries, this study tests the hypothesis that it is the black market exchange rate, not the official rate, that should enter into the demand for money function of countries where there is a black market for foreign currencies. Using several cointegration methods and Hausman tests, it is shown that this hypothesis is strongly supported for most of the countries studied.     

CURRENCY CONVERTIBILITY AND LINKAGE BETWEEN CHINESE OFFICIAL AND SWAP MARKET EXCHANGE RATES

This article investigates the impact of currency convertibility under the current account on the informational linkage between official and swap market exchange rates for Chinese currency (renminbi). Findings indicate that currency convertibility increased the informational connection between the government's official exchange rate and the swap market exchange rate, exclusively traded by foreign investors, and thus improved the information content of renminbi exchange rates. Moreover, the results also suggest that more complete currency convertibility was needed for more informed renminbi exchange rates.     

Black Market and Official Exchange Rates: Long-run Equilibrium and Short-run Dynamics

This paper presents further empirical evidence on the relationship between black market and official exchange rates in six emerging economies (Iran, India, Indonesia, Korea, Pakistan, and Thailand). First, it applies both time series techniques and heterogeneous panel methods to test for the existence of a long-run relationship between these two types of exchange rates. Second, it tests formally the validity of the proportionality restriction implying a constant black-market premium. Third, it also analyses the short-run dynamic responses of both markets to shocks. Finally, it tries to shed some light on the determinants of the market premium. Evidence of slow reversion to the long-run equilibrium is found. Further, it appears that capital controls and expected currency devaluation are the two main factors affecting the size of the premium and determining the breakdown in the proportionality relationship.     

Interest Rate Pass-Through: Empirical Results for the Euro Area

Abstract. This paper empirically examines the interest rate pass‐through at the euro area level. The focus is on the pass‐through of official interest rates, approximated by the overnight interest rate, to longer‐term market interest rates, which, in turn, are a proxy for the marginal costs for banks to attract deposits or grant loans, and therefore passed through to retail bank interest rates. Empirical results, on the basis of a (vector) error‐correction and vector autoregressive model, suggest that the pass‐through of official interest to market interest rates is complete for money market interest rates up to three months, but not for market interest rates with longer maturities. Furthermore, the immediate pass‐through of changes in market interest rates to bank deposit and lending rates is found to be at most 50%, whereas the final pass‐through is typically found to be close to 100%, in particular for lending rates. Empirical results for a sub‐sample starting in January 1999 show qualitatively similar findings and are supportive of a quicker interest rate pass‐through since the introduction of the euro. It is shown that the difference between the adjustment speed of bank deposit and lending rates (typically around one versus three months since the common monetary policy) can to a large extent significantly be explained by credit risk considerations.     

汇率水平及其波动性变化对产业结构调整的影响*

在开放经济条件下研究汇率制度调整所引致的汇率水平及其波动性的变化对产业结构变动的复杂影响及其经济结构效应,符合我国推进新一轮改革开放的战略需求和当前世界经济全球化的发展趋势。有鉴于此,本文试图探讨在汇率制度调整和范式改变的条件下汇率变动的改变对我国工业部门产业结构调整的影响。基于2003-2012年的时间序列数据,本研究建立了汇率水平及波动率与工业产业结构的向量自回归模型,通过协整检验和脉冲响应函数考察了各变量间的长期均衡关系和短期冲击影响。实证结果表明,汇率升值并没有促进工业部门内的产业结构升级,但是汇率弹性的增加有利于工业部门内的产业结构向有益的方向发生改变。     

Black and official exchange rates in Morocco: an analysis of their long-run behaviour and short-run dynamics (1974–1992)

Using Vector Error-Correction (VEC) model estimation on monthly data from Morocco for the period January 1974 to December 1992, this article tests the hypothesis that there is a long-run stable relationship between the official and the black-market exchange rates for US dollars. We also examine the short-run dynamics in the relationship between the two markets. The econometric results indicate that the two exchange rates are cointegrated. Furthermore, we reject weak exogeneity in the case of the official exchange rate, but fail to reject it in the case of the black-market rate. Granger causality tests show that the black-market rate causes the official exchange rate. The results seem to support the efficiency hypothesis, suggesting that participants in the black-market are able to anticipate changes in the official exchange rate. The findings also suggest that Morocco's decision (in January 1993) to introduce only current account convertibility and keep controls on capital accounts was wise.     

Are Indian rice exporters able to price discriminate? Empirical evidence for basmati and non-basmati rice

The role of exchange rate fluctuations on the pricing behaviour of Indian rice exporters in their major destination markets is examined using the pricing-to-market (PTM) model. The analysis was undertaken in a context where India has emerged as a leading exporter of rice in the world market. The study distinguishes between basmati and non-basmati rice in the analysis as the destination markets differ across these two varieties. One of the key contributions of this study is that it undertakes an analysis under 3 exchange rate models, they are: nominal, real and commodity-specific exchange rates. The results from our analysis indicated the presence of non-competitive pricing behaviour of India’s rice exporters in majority of destination markets due to both the market-specific characteristics as well as exchange rate-induced effects. The amplification of exchange rate effects was more prominent in commodity-specific exchange rate model whereas local currency stabilization was more prominent under nominal and real exchange rate models. Furthermore, the analysis showed that the commodity-specific exchange rate better predicts the PTM behaviour of rice exporters.     

负利率政策的传导渠道和有效性研究*

美国“次贷危机”之后全球经济深陷长期停滞状态,欧元区与日本相继实施负利率政策。负利率打破了政策利率零下限的教条,对现有理论提出了挑战。本文分析了负利率政策可能的传导渠道和影响负利率政策有效性的因素,并对现有的政策效果进行评估。本文发现负利率政策较容易对市场利率和汇率等金融市场变量产生影响;但就实体经济复苏而言,负利率政策成败的关键在于是否能有效增加贷款需求和供给。     

OPTIMAL EXPORT AND HEDGING DECISIONS WHEN FORWARD MARKETS ARE INCOMPLETE

This paper examines the behaviour of the competitive firm that exports to two foreign countries under multiple sources of exchange rate uncertainty. There is a forward market between the home currency and one foreign country's currency, but there are no hedging instruments directly related to the other foreign country's currency. We show that the separation theorem holds when the firm optimally exports to the foreign country with the currency forward market. The full‐hedging theorem holds either when the firm exports exclusively to the foreign country with the currency forward market or when the relevant spot exchange rates are independent. In the case that the relevant spot exchange rates are positively (negatively) correlated in the sense of regression dependence, the firm optimally opts for a short (long) forward position for cross‐hedging purposes.     

Understanding low interest rates: evidence from Japan,Euro Area,United States and United Kingdom

The paper investigates the factors determining long‐term interest rates. Our estimation results for major industrialized economies suggest that central banks have actually had a key influence on the level of long‐term interest rates. We thus show that 1) the customary neoclassical model of interest rate determination, on which central banks tend to rely, is neither rooted in the institutional setup of the credit markets nor supported by the data, and that 2) the Austrian explanation incorporated in the model of Wicksell–Mises–Hayek of the credit and business cycle fits better the economic reality. As central bank policy makers might lack the necessary knowledge and foresight to set market rates to levels consistent with economic fundamentals, there is a high chance of misalignments of market rates. The correction of misalignments could lead to severe economic disruptions.