POPULATION DYNAMICS AND MILK SUPPLY RESPONSE IN THE US LAKE STATES

This paper develops a dynamic model of a dairy cow population and of milk supply response. When applied to the US Lake States, the model provides evidence against the Nerlovian model. It suggests that the pattern of dynamic effects of prices on cow numbers varies for different prices. The estimated dynamic supply elasticities provide some useful information on the nature of dairy production adjustments. For example, the response of milk supply to market prices is found to be very inelastic in the short run. It takes at least 7 years of sustained change to obtain an elastic response to milk price. Also, feed price and slaughter cow price are found to have smaller effects on dairy supply than milk price, but larger effects than risk, hay price or capital cost.     

On the nature and magnitude of cost economies in hog production

In this article, we assess the impact of farm size on production cost and evaluate the marginal costs and margins by considering that input prices may change with the scale of production. By using French hog farm data, we estimate a system of equations including a feed price function, input demand functions, and an output supply function based on a technology approximated by a combined generalized Leontief‐Quadratic form. Our results suggest that the marginal costs are over‐estimated when the adjustment of the feed unit prices to a change in farm size is not controlled for. More specifically, the cost economies for large farms (enjoying the highest profits) arise primarily from lower feed prices, with technological scale economies having little impact. In contrast, farms with no hired labor exhibit technological scale economies and reach higher price‐cost margins compared to larger farms.     

Expected Economic Effects of BST in The Netherlands

The calculated profitability of using Bovine Somatotropin (BST) on typical dairy farms in The Netherlands ranges from Dfl.160 to 300 per cow per year, assuming 1985 prices and circumstances, and ignoring the costs of BST. A 20% increase in milk production and no change of the feed/milk relation were used for the calculations. BST is more profitable on intensive farms or on farms with more opportunities for alternative uses of land, buildings and labour. The quota system, however, leads to a considerable reduction of profitability. At a national level, and with an unchanged milk price, a 28% adoption rate of BST would increase national income about Dfl.120 million. However, the cost of BST or any decrease in milk price could reduce this amount, even to below zero. It is apparent that some dairy farmers who apply BST will earn more income whereas others will lose income.     

Supply response of U.K. milk producers

Short‐run own‐price response elasticities are estimated from two samples of panel data for specialist dairy farms in the Northwest and Southwest of England. Although these farms are subject to milk marketing quotas, the free tradability of quotas enables them individually to adjust the output quite rapidly. Model specifications have been chosen to test the ability of panel data to directly reveal behavioral responses without the imposition of theoretical restrictions. Significantly, the two independent samples generate quite similar results, especially in terms of supply response measures. Stable and promising estimates are obtained with simultaneous models giving higher elasticities than single equation models.     

Price transmission,asymmetric adjustment and threshold effects in the cotton supply chain: a case study for Vidarbha,India

This study examines price transmission asymmetries in Vidarbha's (India) cotton supply chain from 2002 to 2012. The analysis takes account of thresholds in price adjustments toward their long‐run equilibrium. The first stage considers the price dynamics between international and Indian domestic cotton prices. The second stage considers price transmission from domestic to farm gate cotton prices in Vidarbha. Results from the first stage indicate that Indian and international cotton markets are well‐integrated. In contrast, the second stage reveals significant threshold‐type nonlinearities as well as asymmetries in price transmission between domestic and farm gate prices. The short‐run dynamics suggest that the pass‐through from domestic to farm gate prices is larger when domestic prices decrease than when they increase. Moreover, back of the envelope calculations suggest that the loss in revenue for a typical farmer from a decrease in domestic price is larger than the gains from an increase in domestic price of the same magnitude. The implication is that traders benefit from price fluctuations at the expense of farmers. Evidence from fieldwork in Vidarbha suggest that asymmetries revealed in this analysis may be linked to trader's market power and inadequate market information among farmers.     

International Supply Response

Long-run aggregate agricultural supply elasticities obtained from conventional supply functions fitted to time series data tend to be relatively inelastic in the range of 0.1 to 0.4. I argue that these estimates substantially understate the true long-run supply response in agriculture. Because of the lack of international input price data, implicit output/input price ratios are estimated from a production function assuming profit maximization. The estimation of an aggregate supply function utilizing these price ratios yields long run aggregate supply elasticities in the range of 0.90 to 1.19. These figures are substantially larger than those obtained from conventional supply functions fitted to time series data, but correspond closely to estimates reported in an earlier crosscountry study that used different price data for different points in time. The results imply that policies which distort domestic and/or world market prices of agricultural products cause greater output distortions in both the DCs and LDCs than are predicted by the small supply elasticities obtained from conventional supply estimation.     

Nonlinearities in the U.S. corn‐ethanol‐oil‐gasoline price system

We use a smooth transition vector error correction model to assess price relationships within the U.S. ethanol industry. Monthly ethanol, corn, oil, and gasoline prices from 1990 to 2008 are used in the analysis. Results indicate the existence of long‐run relationships among the prices analyzed. Strong links between energy and food prices are identified.     

Supply and demand for commodity components: implications of free trade versus the AUSFTA for the US dairy industry*

During the negotiations on the Australia–US free trade agreement (AUSFTA), the US dairy industry vigorously opposed opening the US market to imports of Australian dairy products on the grounds that the US industry would be devastated. Subsequently, the agreement signed in February 2004 made an exception for dairy, providing for only limited quota expansion and no free trade, even at the end of the long implementation period. This paper presents a simulation model of world dairy markets, represented by supply and demand equations for fat and non‐fat components of milk and manufactured dairy products. We use the model to analyse the effects on US milk markets of both a hypothetical agreement, allowing free bilateral trade in dairy products, and the actual AUSFTA. An important contribution to the literature is the derivation of explicit supply and demand relationships for milk components. The components model allows an analysis of long‐term production, consumption, and trade patterns that is not tied to specific, fungible products. Simulations indicate that increased imports from Australia resulting from bilateral trade liberalisation would have resulted in small reductions in US milk prices and production. The much smaller increases in Australian access to the US market under the actual AUSFTA will have even smaller, almost negligible, impacts.     

Estimation of time-varying price elasticity in 1970–1997 Japanese raw milk supply by structural time-series model

The price elasticity of raw milk supply in Japan is estimated over time by a structural time-series model in state space form, and the changes in elasticity are tested by the diagnosing test of de John and Penzer in 1998. The supply function is modeled with a local linear trend and a strictly exogenous autoregressive distributed lag price. The seasonality in the data is adjusted by a structural time-series model. In the 1970–1997 period, there were major dairy policy changes in Japan: a production adjustment, related penalties, and two-tier pricing. Hokkaido is the region that mainly provides the supply of raw milk for milk products, while Tofuken is the region that mainly produces drinking milk. The estimated price elasticity in Hokkaido became stable after imposition of the production adjustment. On the other hand, price elasticity in Tofuken became stable after the inflation of the mid-1970s. Price elasticity is estimated to be more inelastic as well as more likely to converge in inelasticity in Hokkaido than in Tofuken. We discuss the relationship between changes in dairy policy and changes in price elasticity.     

Agricultural Supply Response: A Survey

This paper surveys the literature on agricultural supply response to prices in developing countries. Empirical estimates of elasticities depend both on the methodology adopted and on country-specific factors relating to technology, economic structure and macro constraints. The paper seeks to establish some general conclusions on supply responsiveness within these limitations. Supply response to output prices at the aggregate and at the crop levels is considered first. Crop-specific acreage elasticities range between zero and 0.8 in the short run while long-run elasticities tend to be higher — between 0.3 and 1.2. Yield elasticities are smaller and less stable than acreage elasticities. Clearly, inter-crop pricing can be relied upon to effect shifts in the commodity composition of agricultural output. Evidence also suggests that supply elasticities vary systematically with such factors as price and yield risks, multiple-cropping, the importance of the crop, farm incomes, farm size, tenancy and literacy. The most controversial and important aspect of supply response is the effect on aggregate agricultural output of agriculture's terms of trade. Conventional time-series estimates range from 0.1 to 0.3. A major cross-country study reports an aggregate elasticity as high as 1.66. It is argued that cross-country estimates are apt to exaggerate aggregate responsiveness while time-series studies underestimate it somewhat. For LDCs, a tentative range of 0.4 to 0.5 seems plausible. Hence, the distributive effects of the terms of trade are likely to be more significant than the allocative effects. Asian evidence shows that only a third of the inter-country differences in fertilizer use can be attributed to fertilizer price policies. Provided new technologies and infrastructure are in place, fertilizer subsidies can help in technology diffusion and in overcoming credit constraints. The choice between price supports and input subsidies will depend on a variety of country- or situation-specific factors. Nevertheless, a significant general factor favoring price supports is that they can more easily be coupled with price stabilization goals than input subsidies. Though sparse, the available evidence on the response of marketed surplus suggests that price policy is not a reliable instrument for regulating inter-sectoral trade.     

Deregulation reforms,resource reallocation and aggregate productivity growth in the Australian dairy industry

Deregulation reforms in the Australian dairy industry had long‐lasting repercussions for Australian agriculture and the wider Australian economy. Using farm‐level data from 1979 to 2013, we investigate the effect of these reforms on productivity in the Australian dairy industry which arose from correcting resource misallocation between farms and across segregated state milk markets. Our results demonstrate that after the dairy reforms in 2000, relative market share shifted from less productive farms to more productive ones, and between farms using different production systems – generating additional productivity gains for the farm sector, but imposing some costs on downstream manufacturers by strengthening the seasonality of milk supply. Lessons from the Australian experience provide timely guidance for those countries exploring deregulation now or in the future to improve the industry‐level agricultural productivity growth through facilitating resource reallocation from less efficient to more efficient farms.     

Canadian Hog Supply Response: A Provincial Level Analysis

Canada's hog sector has faced two decades of tumultuous growth, yet there are no recent estimates of supply response. This study uses state‐space methods to account for a multiplicity of autonomous structural changes impacting the sector and determines if the fundamental relationship between supply response and hog prices has changed from previous estimates. The results are consistent with prior research but offer the reader previously unavailable estimates of supply response with respect to feed prices and the variability of hog and feed prices. Feed price elasticities are somewhat larger than hog price elasticities. The effects of price risk for supply response appear quite muted but the impacts of feed price risk are greater than for hog price risk.     

Canadian Cattle Cycles and Market Shocks

We analyze Canadian beef cattle cycles using time‐series properties of four variables: total cattle inventories, beef cow inventories, beef supply, and beef prices. Our aim is to provide up‐to‐date estimates of the duration of the cycles, and to determine whether or not some of the recent market shocks can be associated with changes in the nature of the cycles. Spectral decomposition of the variables reveals 10‐year cycles in total cattle inventories, beef cow inventories, beef supply, and beef prices. Seasonal and annual cycles are also found in beef supply and prices, respectively. Using intervention analysis, exchange rate appreciation, feed price escalation, and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) are modeled as pure jumps. Exchange rate and feed price shocks are modeled as having started in 2002 and 2007, respectively, and persisted up to the end of the sample period, while BSE is modeled as a shift for the period 2003 to 2005. We find significant impacts of the three shocks on total inventories, but beef supply appears to have been impacted by exchange rates and BSE. A spectral comparison of the pre‐ and post‐shock periodograms of beef supply reveals a 58% reduction in the peak amplitude of the beef supply cycle.     

Agricultural Policies and Structural Change in French Dairy Farms: A Nonstationary Markov Model

The aim of this paper is to gain an understanding into how agricultural policies have affected structural change in the French dairy sector. A nonstationary Markov model is estimated using a Generalized Cross Entropy approach. Results show that while the price of cow's milk encourages farm growth, direct payments and quota restriction favor small farms. The price signal is a key factor of structural change. As a result, higher milk prices may accelerate the trend toward the further growth of dairy farms. Settlement policy and technical change seem not to slow this trend.     

Evaluating the uncertainty in estimates of the economic impacts of Bovine-Leukosis virus in U.S. dairy cows

An examination of the economic impacts of Bovine‐Leukosis virus indicated that reduced milk production, attributed to the presence of Bovine‐Leukosis virus in dairy cows, reduced consumer surplus by 2.7 ± 2.3 billion US$ (bUS$), and resulted in a total partial equilibrium loss of 720 ± 560 million US$ (mUS$) to the U.S. economy in 1996. Most of the economic surplus lost by consumers was transferred to producers, whose economic surplus increased by 2.0 ± 1.8 bUS$ as a result of reduced milk production attributed to the presence of Bovine‐Leukosis virus in dairy cattle. Uncertainty analysis showed that an estimate of the milk‐production decline per percent increase in the prevalence of Bovine‐Leukosis virus in dairy cows accounted for most of the uncertainty in the economic‐impact estimates. If Bovine‐Leukosis virus had not been present in U.S. dairy cows, then milk production would have increased by 2.0 billion ± 1.5 billion kg, the price would have fallen by 3.8 ± 3.2 cents/kg, and the value of the milk produced would have decreased by 2.1 ± 1.9 bUS$. Guidelines delineated by the International Organization for Standardization, for evaluating and expressing uncertainty in measurement, are discussed and proposed for use in the context of broad national estimates, for which the economic impacts of Bovine‐Leukosis virus serve as an example. The principal advantages of the methodology are the clarity and transparency of results, and the ability clearly to identify major uncertainty contributors.     

The role of retail market power and state regulations in the heterogeneity of farm‐retail price transmission of private label and branded products

Given the leading role of private label brands in the fluid milk market, it is of special interest to focus on possible differences in farm‐retail price transmission between private label and branded milk as well as the causes of heterogeneity. This article examines the heterogeneous effects of private label and branded products on price transmission in the fluid milk market using a panel threshold asymmetric error correction model. Results indicate that upward retail‐price adjustment is faster than the downward price adjustment for both private label and branded milk. The speed of adjustment of private label products is significantly faster than branded products in three different price regimes. We further investigate the reasons of heterogeneity in farm‐retail price transmission of private label milk. We find that both retailer market power and state pricing regulations contribute to the heterogeneity in asymmetric price transmission. Higher retailer market power causes retail prices of private label milk to rise faster and to fall slower. The existence of a state pricing regulation slows down the adjustment speed of retail prices of private labels back to the long‐run equilibrium, regardless of whether the retail price is low or high.     

A SUPPLY FUNCTION FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS

Results of an investigation into factors affecting the aggregate supply of dairy products in Australia are presented. Empirical estimates of the parameters of the supply function, using ordinary least squares, indicate that some concept of average prices for dairy products is a more important determinant of supply than ratios of prices of dairy products relative to prices of production substitutes such as beef cattle or sheep and lambs. The empirical results also indicate that the quota-type effects of the various metropolitan fluid milk schemes are important in determining supply. Effects of new technology on supply could not be quantified due to intercorrelation of explanatory variables.     

Determinants, differentiation, and development of short-term marginal costs in dairy production: an empirical analysis for selected regions of the EU

This work provides evidence on the determinants, cost differentiation, and development of short‐term marginal costs of dairy farms in important production regions of the European Union. The empirical study is based on the estimation of multi‐input multi‐output Symmetric Generalized McFadden cost functions using an unbalanced panel data set of the European Farm Accountancy Data Network. The results show considerable regional differences in the impact of the outputs, input prices, and fixed factors on marginal costs. Strong evidence can be found that marginal costs decrease over time and is further underlined by the development of derived regional aggregated short‐term supply curves. Marginal cost elasticities and correlation coefficients validate the hypotheses that a high degree of farm specialization, large milk output, and low milk prices are associated with lower marginal costs. Furthermore, the marginal cost spread in the data sample is analyzed. We show that milk output, milk yield, herd size, labor input, and fodder production can be attributed to significant marginal cost differentiation of farms, whereas for crop and animal output, grassland, stock of other animals, and depreciation only minor differentiation can be found.     

The U.S. Dairy Sector without Price Supports

Under legislation approved in 1996, the U.S. dairy price support program would end on 31 December 1999. While U.S. dairy markets would continue to be protected by import tariffs and export subsidies, the previous floor under market prices would be removed. Given the prospective market situation, model results indicate that removing the price support program would have only modest impacts on the U.S. dairy industry. Prices of nonfat dry milk may be lower without the price support program than they would be if the program continued, but the net impact on milk prices and production would be small. Unless world demand is substantially stronger than projected or unless U.S. supplies are much larger, unsubsidized U.S. exports of products such as butter and nonfat dry milk appear unlikely. Niche markets and changes in relative values of milk components, however, may offer other U.S. dairy export opportunities. En vertu d'une loi agricole approuvée par les États-Unis en 1996, le régime de soutien des prix des produits laitiers devait se terminer le 31 décembre 1999. Même si les marchés laitiers américains continueraient àêtre protégés par des tarifs douaniers à l'importation et par des subventions à l'exportation, le prix plancher en place serait enlevé. Vu la situation prospective du marché, les résultats modélisés font voir que le retrait du régime de soutien des prix n'aurait que des impacts modestes sur le secteur laitier américain. Les prix de la poudre de lait écrémé seraient peut-être plus bas que si le régime avail été maintenu, maisl'impact net sur les prix du lait et sur la production laitière serait faible. À mains que la demande mondiale n'augmente sensiblement plus que prévu ou que les stocks américains ne soient beaucoup plus importants, il est peu probable que des exportations non subventionnées de produits comme le beurre et la poudre de lait écrémé voient le jour dans le proche avenir. Toutefois, le développement de certains créneaux du marché et les changements affectant les valeurs relatives des composants laitiers pourraient se traduire par d'autres possibilitiés d'exportation pour les produits laitiers américains.     

Off‐farm work and technical efficiency on U.S. dairies

In this study, we investigate the impact of an increase in farm households’ off‐farm work on technical efficiency (TE) of U.S. dairies. We present a theoretical framework that implies that an increase in farm household off‐farm work decreases TE. We use two nationally‐representative samples of U.S. dairies (2010 and 2005 Agricultural Resource Management Surveys) and a parametric approach (stochastic frontier analysis) to empirically test the hypothesis. Results are generally consistent with the hypothesis and show that an increase in off‐farm work by the farm household is associated with a significant decrease in TE. In addition, results show that there is a statistically significant difference in TE between small, medium, and large farms. Small farms are associated with significantly higher off‐farm work and have lower TE than large farms, which implies that less off‐farm work by households with larger farms is at least partially responsible for the evidence of economies of scale in the U.S. dairy industry.