Accounting Education: The Impact of Globalization

This report investigates the impact of globalization on accounting education as set forth by members of a panel at the annual meeting of the American Accounting Association held in New York in August 2009. It addresses the work of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) and the International Accounting Education Standards Board (IAESB) in coordinating accounting education globally, research by the International Association for Accounting Education and Research (IAAER) in support of the IAESB, the work of the International Accounting Standards Committee Foundation (IASC Foundation) and its impact on accounting education, and the impact of globalization on accounting education in Japan.     

IES 4 — Ethics Education Revisited

In 2003, the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) issued a set of International Education Standards (IES). IES 4 Professional Values, Ethics and Attitudes aims to equip candidates for membership of an IFAC member body with the appropriate professional values, ethics and attitudes to function as professional accountants. This paper explores the implications of IES 4 and analyses some of the challenges arising from an international professional accounting body prescribing ethics education. It concludes with an overview of considerations to be addressed to ensure that the implementation of IES 4 is successful .     

Teaching resources

In June 2004, the International Association for Accounting Education and Research (IAAER) in cooperation with the Southern African Accounting Association (SAAA) and the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) hosted a Globalization Roundtable in Durban, South Africa, on the theme of Implementing International Education Standards: The Global Challenges. This was supported by the KPMG Foundation. The Roundtable was held to familiarize members of the international academic community with the International Education Standards (IES) developed and released by IFAC to provide quality and consistency in global accounting education. Attendees at the Roundtable were asked to discuss the IES, identify implementation challenges, particularly in emerging countries, and resources to meet those challenges, including any additional implementation guidance or assistance. This report summarizes the deliberations.     

Incorporating real-options analysis into the accounting curriculum

In this paper, we argue that accounting curricula should be expanded to cover the topic of real options. Our argument relies on reference to the [American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) (1999) (Core Competency Framework, New York, NY: AICPA <http://ceae.aicpa.org/Resources/Education+and+Curriculum+Development/Core+Competency+Framework+and+Educational+Competency+Assessment+Web+Site/> Accessed 21.08.08], the framework for curriculum change espoused by [Arya, A., Fellingham, J. C., & Schroeder, D. A. (2003). An academic curriculum proposal. Issues in Accounting Education, 18(1) 29–35], a global study of core competencies for management accountants [International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), (2002). Competency profiles for management accounting practice and practitioners. New York, NY: International Federation of Accountants], a global capital-budgeting “best practices statement” [International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), (2008). International good practice guidance: Project appraisal using discounted cash flow. New York, NY: International Federation of Accountants], current specifications of the CMA exam [Institute of Management Accountants (IMA), (2008). Certified management accountant (CMA) learning outcome statements (effective 07/01/04), updated 07/2008. <http://www.imanet.org/pdf/CMA%20%20LOS.pdf> Accessed 29.10.08.], and elements of the Albrecht and Sack report [Albrecht, W. S., & Sack, R. J. (2000). Accounting education: Charting the course through a perilous future. Accounting education series, Vol. 16. Sarasota, FL: American Accounting Association]. We make special reference to the linkage of the topic of real options to two broad educational goals: decision-modeling and risk analysis. Existing resources that accounting faculty can use to incorporate real options into the curriculum are limited. As a response, we provide an extended example that accounting educators can use to cover the topic of real options. This example uses a set of binomial trees (one for cash inflows and another for cash outflows). The step-by-step approach presented in this paper allows students without a technical/mathematical background to extend discounted-cash-flow (DCF) decision models (e.g., NPV) to incorporate real options that are embedded in proposed investment projects.     

The reluctance of a developed country to choose International Public Sector Accounting Standards of the IFAC. A critical case study

A movement towards internationally standardized public sector financial reporting started at the end of the 1990s. This standardization process is led by the non-governmental organization the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC). The IFAC has published International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS standards) for all public sector entities from national central governments to local governments. This article analyses the reasons why a developed country refused to adopt IPSAS standards. The analysis is done in the country context of Finland, where the national government accounting board (FGAB) took a negative stand on IPSAS standards. The method of this article consists of a literature review, interviews, a documentary review and of participatory observation in the FGAB. The article describes the reasons for the FGAB's decision and presents an interpretation supported by institutional theory. The choice of the FGAB is compared to the situation regarding the IPSAS adoption in European and especially in Nordic countries.     

An empirical test of Birkett’s competency model for management accountants: Survey evidence from Dutch practitioners

In 2002, the Accountants-in-Business section of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) issued the Competency Profiles for Management Accounting Practice and Practitioners report. This “Birkett Report” presents a framework for competency development during the careers of management accountants (MAs). On the basis of this theoretical report, a hypothesis has been formulated about the sequence in which each of 38 competencies is expected to become important to the MA during his/her career. Results presented here show that practicing MAs see the same sequence of competencies during their careers as is presented in the theoretical framework, supporting Birkett’s competency model. The results indicate that there may be three groups of competencies: basic, advanced, and highly advanced. It may be said that the basic competencies need to be present at graduation. The advanced competencies may need to be present some years after the start of the MAs career. The highly advanced skills may be needed for Chief Financial Officer (CFO) candidates. These results suggest that advanced and highly advanced competencies are those that could be taught in continuing professional education (CPE) programs, while university education programs should focus on developing basic competencies.     

An Empirical Analysis of the Positive Impact of Ethics Teaching on Accounting Students

Recent releases from the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) highlight the importance of ethics education. Academic institutions employ varying methods and place varying levels of emphasis on ethics teaching during a business/accounting degree. This paper attempts to evaluate whether teaching ethics to final year accounting students is beneficial. At the commencement of a semester, one class of 155 students was given five ethical scenarios on which to make an ethical decision. All students were then subject to three different methods of ethical instruction. Several weeks later, the class was again given the original five ethical scenarios and asked to re-complete. In all five instances, the mean responses were more ethical after the instruction methodologies. The subjects also verified that the combined effect of the methodologies had impacted positively on hypothetical ethical decision-making. Hence, it appears that ethics education is beneficial, and the challenge is to find the optimal method(s).     

中小事务所在协助中小企业改进环境治理中的作用

The Role of SMPs in Greening Small Business By Syfvie Voghel,SMP Committee Chair (see bio) and Paul Thompson,Deputy Director,SME arid SMP Affairs,IFAC This article examines the relevance of integrated reporting to small business and highlights how small- and medium-sized practices (SMPs) can help small businesses improve their environmental performance.     

The core competency framework: a new element in the continuing call for accounting education change in the United States

Professional accounting organizations and academicians in the United States have developed numerous frameworks and reports to address changes in the profession and to provide guidance for accounting educators in the implementation of curriculum change. In 1998, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) released the Core Competency Framework for Entry into the Accounting Profession as an educational component of its CPA Vision Project. The online resource provides direct assistance to educators around the world in the implementation and assessment of the framework's recommendations. The purpose of this paper and the accompanying matrix, Comparison of US Accounting Education Frameworks with the Core Competencies, is to survey the history of contemporary American accounting education frameworks and compare earlier works with the most recent effort by the profession to recommend and institute accounting education change in the United States.     

The Standards Programme of IFAC's Public Sector Committee

This article explains the standard–setting programme of the Public Sector Committee (PSC) of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC). It outlines the objectives of the Public Sector Standards Programme and describes the due process adopted by the PSC. It also identifies achievements to date and examines major features of the PSC's current and future work programme.     

Harmonization of the auditor's report

International efforts to harmonize the audit report, spearheaded by the International Auditing Practices Committee of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), culminated in the issuance of International Standard on Auditing (ISA) 13 in 1983. The stated purpose of ISA 13 was to: “provide guidance to auditors on the form and content of the auditor's report issued in connection with the independent audit of the financial statements of any entity.” The purpose of this paper is to assess whether ISA 13 has resulted in greater international harmonization of audit reports. We assess the level of harmonization both by examining the extent to which countries have adopted ISA 13 and by the extent to which the content of the auditor's report has changed. A survey of IFAC's member organizations in 86 countries netted 50 responses. Eighty-six percent of respondents (and 93% of respondents from developing and emerging economies) said they have achieved harmonization with ISA 13. We compared the auditor's reports (in financial reports) of 450 companies in 33 IFAC member countries on two different dates (a pre-ISA 13 date and a post-ISA 13 date). The results suggest a higher degree of conformity with the standard for the post-ISA 13 reports. Finally, cluster analysis was conducted to explore the dynamics of clustering from pre-ISA 13 to post-ISA 13 regimes. A slight drop in the divisiveness coefficient (DC) was observed for the total audit report elements as well as for the form elements, suggesting a less cohesive cluster structure for the post-ISA 13 regime. The empirical evidence, taken as a whole, shows reduced diversity of practices and standards involving the audit report since the issuance of ISA 13. This conclusion should provide encouragement for international standard-setters.     

The evolution of Indian accounting standards: Its history and current status with regard to International Financial Reporting Standards

This paper addresses the adoption and applicability of International Accounting Standards (IAS) and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), issued by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) to India. Specifically, the paper highlights some major areas where the country lacked harmonization with IAS in 1993 and the rapid congruence with IAS in the decade that followed. The attempt to achieve congruence with IAS appears to be more a by-product of the country's rapid economic growth rather than its catalyst. However, continued growth and the attraction of foreign capital to domestic ventures will depend on the transparency of the financial dealings. The Institute of the Chartered Accountants of India, (ICAI), India's standard setting body, is increasingly attempting to provide this transparency by revisions and additions to accounting standards, and by Exposure Drafts which aim to bring India more in line with International Financial Reporting Standards.     

Accounting Community of Practice pedagogy: a course management invention for developing personal competencies in accounting education

This paper reports the findings of an exploratory qualitative study using the implementation of Wenger’s [(1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press; Wenger, E. (2000). Communities of practice and social learning systems. Organization, 7(2), 225–246] Theory of Communities of Practice to develop an Accounting Community of Practice (ACOP) pedagogy. Students from eight accounting courses who participated, in the120 narratives and 280 surveys used as data, practice and develop critical real-world professional accounting competencies by linking three structural foundations: (1) accountability to joint enterprise, (2) mutual engagement, and (3) shared repertoire of communal resources. Competencies promoted by the AICPA [(1999). Core competency framework of entry into the accounting profession. Retrieved from http://www.aicpa.org/edu/corecomp.htm; AICPA. (2006). Core competency framework of entry into the accounting profession. Retrieved from http://www.aicpa.org/edu/corecomp.htm); International Federation of Accountants (IFAC). (2003). International education standard No. 3, professional skills. Retrieved from www.ifac.org; IFAC. (2015). Meeting future expectations of professional competence: A consultation on the IAESB’S future strategies and priorities. Retrieved from www.iaesb.org; ICAEW. (1996). Added value professionals: Chartered accountants in England and Wales. London: Author], and other professional bodies include problem-solving, leadership, project management, and interaction. ACOP strategy is effective in maintaining dynamic learning environments, increasing students’ awareness of trust, open communication, and creative thinking. Meaning and knowledge are owned in ACOP where the focus of the class shifts from instructor to students. This study adds to limited empirical research in communal forms of learning in accounting.     

Auditing Standards in China—A Comparative Analysis with Relevant International Standards and Guidelines

The continuing and deepening economic reforms in China have brought many changes both socially and economically to the society. The primary function of auditing in China has begun to shift away from the traditional tax compliance assessment towards the credibility lending to financial statements. The economic reforms and the development of the Accounting Standards for Business Enterprises have necessitated the parallel development of auditing standards in China. While some significant differences exist, the new Chinese auditing standards are, in a number of important aspects, similar to the professional standards promulgated by the International Federation of Accountants. The development of a comprehensive body of standards, auditor independence, the role of certain auditing techniques, and certified public accountant (CPA) population are the major areas that China needs to improve. Opening up the Chinese accounting industry will trigger significant advances in the implementation of Chinese standards and the development of the Chinese accounting profession.     

Measuring Country Differences in Enforcement of Accounting Standards: An Audit and Enforcement Proxy

In this paper we present an index designed to capture differences between countries in relation to the institutional setting for financial reporting, specifically the auditing of financial statements and the enforcement of compliance with each country's accounting standards. The use of a common set of standards such as International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) aims, in broad terms, to promote the comparability and transparency of financial statements and to improve the quality of financial reporting. However, the effectiveness of IFRS adoption may be hampered by differences, across countries, in the institutional setting in which financial reporting occurs. Studies of outcomes from adopting IFRS use a range of legal system proxies to capture these country differences, but the proxies are deficient in that they seldom focus explicitly on factors that affect how compliance with accounting standards is promoted through external audit and the activities of independent enforcement bodies. To address this deficiency, we calculate measures of the quality of the public company auditors’ working environment (AUDIT) and the degree of accounting enforcement activity (ENFORCE) by independent enforcement bodies. We do this for 51 countries for each of the years 2002, 2005 and 2008, using publicly available data provided by the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), the World Bank and the national securities regulators. Preliminary tests suggest our indices have additional explanatory power (over more general legal proxies) for country‐level measures of economic and market activity, financial transparency and earnings management. We expect they will prove useful to researchers and other interested parties who require country‐level measures that focus on the degree of enforcement of financial reporting practices.     

Rejoinder: Some thoughts on social and environmental accounting education

Abstract

Continuing professional development (CPD) is the educational and developmental work and learning that professionals undertake after they have qualified as members of their professional body. International Education Standard (IES 7), issued by the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) in May 2004, called on all professional accountants to develop and maintain competence that is relevant and appropriate for their work and their professional responsibilities. In order to comply with IES 7, ACCA and ICAEW implemented new policies for CPD effective from 1 January 2005, and CIMA and ICAS from 1 January 2006. Prior to these changes, CPD, which had originally been regarded purely as implicit within a professional accountant's ethical responsibilities, had come to be more regulated following legislative changes in the late 1980s. This is the first academic study to investigate the actual CPD activities of accountants in public practice in the UK. The questionnaire survey revealed that approximately 80% of members in public practice of ACCA, CIMA, ICAEW and ICAS engaged in levels of CPD that complied with the guidance in place before the new rules were introduced in 2005/06. The most frequently reported CPD activities were technical reading and course attendance. ACCA members have a broadly similar requirement under the new ACCA CPD policy. Most ACCA members in practice would continue to comply with the new policy requirements if their level of participation in CPD activities remains unchanged. However, up to 20% of such accountants are likely not to be compliant unless their participation increases. CIMA, ICAEW and ICAS have adopted a new approach to CPD based on outputs rather than inputs. These new requirements are also discussed.     

The Goal Project: A Group Assignment to Encourage Creative Thinking,Leadership Abilities and Communication Skills

Abstract

The classroom assignment described in this paper, The Goal Project, gives students an opportunity to develop four of the skills and abilities required to be a successful accountant. In 1990, the Accounting Education Change Commission issued Position Statement Number One, Objectives of Education for Accountants. Appendix B of that statement contains eight categories of knowledge, skills, personal capacities and attitudes that are needed by accounting graduates. The Institute of Management Accountants has outlined the work of a management accountant to include working in small business teams and participating in strategic decision making. The project described in this paper replicates the work an accountant would perform when working in problem-solving teams. Data was collected and results are included from a questionnaire completed by 166 students who participated in The Goal Project. The results of perceived improvement in creative problem solving, leadership skills, and oral and written communication skills are presented.     

Principles‐Based Reasoning about Accounting Estimates

This article proposes a key principle and related concepts for reasoning about accounting estimates. The reasoning is consistent with a principles‐based professional judgment framework proposed by Ross Skinner and the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland. The principle deals with reasonable ranges and related risk assessments in the audit of accounting estimates. It does so by using concepts first introduced by Boritz and Skinner and updates them for the requirements of CAS/ISA No. 540 and International Financial Reporting Standards. The article identifies the conditions for the existence of the benchmark ranges proposed by Smieliauskas in identifying fairly presented estimates. The need for a professional judgment framework and related guidance has been recognized recently by the International Federation of Accountants, a 2010 EU Green Paper, and the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board as a result of challenges auditors have been facing in the current reporting environment. This recognition echoes calls first made by Ross Skinner in his pioneering 1995 article, and reinforced by the FASB/IASB 2006 proposal for principles‐based accounting standards.     

An examination of the work of the Accounting Education Change Commission 1989–1992

This paper reviews the literature concerning the Accounting Education Change commission(AECC)

and the most recent attempts to create a climate of change within accounting education in the United States.The background leading up to the creation of the AECC is briefly stated, followed by a commentary on the activities and pronouncements issued by the AECC so far. The paper concludes with an evaluation of the performance of the AECC project to date, and consideration of the implications for accounting education in other english-speaking countries.     

Competence-based Approaches to the Assessment of Professional Accountancy Training Work Experience Requirements: The ICAS Experience

Most professional accountancy bodies' qualification processes encompass three components: a prescribed programme of professional education, some form of work experience, and a formal final examination to determine professional competence. The International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) suggests that purely theoretical and knowledge-based education does not meet the needs of all employers. Thus professional bodies are encouraged to find ways to deliver and assess relevant competences in the most appropriate manner. Despite educationalists suggesting that performance measurements based on direct observation within the work place are more effective at measuring competences than traditional paper-based examinations, assessment strategies within the accountancy domain remain conservative. The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS) was one of the first professional bodies to introduce a competency-based approach to work based assessment in 1999 and subsequently undertook a review of the process in 2004. The data collected for the review was undertaken by way of a questionnaire to authorized training offices, in-depth interviews with employers, and discussions which emanated from a Working Party which included internal ICAS employees, an academic and a representative from a large accountancy firm. This paper presents the findings of the review, discusses the pertinent issues in relation to work based assessment and outlines the changes that were made to the competency-based approach adopted by ICAS. It concludes with recommendations for future practice.