Rural tourism development in China

This paper provides an overview and brief evaluation of China's rural tourism. Beginning with the form of poverty alleviation through tourism, China's rural tourism has undergone over 20 years of development and exhibited some unique features in its development pattern, scale and business operational models in accordance with China's political, social and economic systems. Government plays a decisive role in developing rural tourism in China. However, rural tourism has been valued mainly as an economic means for rural development during the country's modernisation process. Overlooking rurality as an essential issue in rural tourism may lead development to a wrong direction, which could jeopardise the sustainability of the industry. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Developing Rural Tourism: the PAT Program and ‘Nong jia le’ Tourism in China

Despite the fact that the last three decades have witnessed the rapid development of rural tourism (RT) in China, which is being promoted by the Chinese government as an important new type of tourism due to its special role in revitalizing China's rural economy, there is still little knowledge about the economic impacts of RT on Chinese rural communities in terms of socio‐economic development and regeneration. Accordingly, this study represents an attempt to address this issue by examining the Poverty Alleviation through Tourism program and ‘Nong jia le’ (Happy Farmer Home) tourism within the Chinese context. The findings not only confirm the widely held importance of RT, as expected, but also identify the problems and challenges relating to the sustainable development of RT in the future. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

R-Tresis: developing a transport model system for regional New South Wales

This paper sets out a demand modelling framework for the development of a regional transport and land use model system (R-Tresis), to be implemented for New South Wales (Australia). Traditionally, the focus of such a model system has been major metropolitan areas such as Sydney, where we have developed Tresis (Hensher, 2002). Given the growing concern about regional accessibility to many service classes, there is a need for a modelling capability that can be used to prioritize and guide policy decisions in regions that are often described as remote, rural, low density and small town. In developing a framework that is capable of integrating both demand and supply elements of transportation and land use activity, we recognized the challenges in developing primary data sources, and the high likelihood of a reliance on secondary data sources. This suggested an alternative approach to demand modelling that was not dependent on choice models; namely a suite of continuous choice models in which we capture the actual activities undertaken by each mode on both the demand and supply side at high spatial resolution.     

基于空间成本分配的北京城市轨道交通票价方案选择评价

成本的空间分配是公共交通公平的重要内容,受不同票价方案影响。为了比较不同票价方案下的空间成本分配差异,运用可达性方法,采用北京地铁及其计程票制数据在城市轨道交通站点间票价的基础上计算区域站均票价,分析不同票价方案下北京区县空间成本分布格局差异,给出区县票价方案择优结果,并对2014年北京城市轨道交通票价听证会选择的票价方案进行评价。结果显示,北京各区县并不适合一种票价方案,各区域有最佳的票价方案选择,选择一种票价方案会导致区域间不公平,为城市轨道交通票价调整政策提供一定的参考。     

Road pricing in National Parks: a case study in the Yorkshire Dales National Park

Road user charging is typically associated with urban contexts, however, congestion at rural attractions is of increasing concern and road user charging may be considered as a suitable policy instrument. This paper investigates the issue of rural road pricing and presents the results of a survey of car-based visitors to Upper Wharfedale in the Yorkshire Dales National Park, which explores the potential impacts on mode and destination choice of a road user charging scheme, combined with a park and ride alternative. The scheme was found to be acceptable to 68% of the respondents, with nearly half opting to park and ride. The results are of particular interest in the light of the 1998 Transport White Paper that encourages pilot road user charging schemes in rural areas.     

Rural vehicles in China: appropriate policy for appropriate technology

Over 3 million Chinese Rural Vehicles (CRVs) were produced in China in 2002, three times that of conventional passenger cars. Yet these smaller, simpler, indigenous vehicles are virtually unknown outside China. The CRV industry is unusual in that it evolved largely outside the control of government regulation and policy, using local technology and resources. CRVs now consume one fourth of the diesel fuel in China and play an important role in rural development. This paper is the first comprehensive assessment (in English or Chinese) of these vehicles and this remarkable industry. This study documents and analyzes vehicle technology, government policy, environmental impacts, market demand, and industry dynamics. We find that increasing government regulation (mostly for emissions and safety) is having profound effects on the industry, with uncertain implications for the sales and globalization of rural vehicle technology.     

Rural Tourism Partnerships and Actor Mobility

In this paper, I examine actor mobility within the context of rural tourism partnerships (RTPs). The term ‘actor’ refers to those who have a stake in tourism planning, promotion and development such as policy makers, businesses, non‐profit making sector and community groups. Mobility is embedded in personal and social histories of actors as well as the policy framework that impacts their daily lives and informs their motives for being (dis)associated with RTPs. While exploring how actors' journeys transform rural localities' socio‐economic fabric, I find the writings of Lefebvre and de Certeau particularly useful because of their focus on counter‐hegemonic practices that shape the ‘everyday life’. Given that most rural societies in current times comprise an intricate mix of long‐term residents, seasonal‐home owners and migrants, each with their distinct set of life stories and value preferences with regard to their place of dwelling, my thrust in this paper on actor mobility is likely to identify new areas of future research on RTPs. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Accessibility gains and road transport infrastructure in Spain: A productivity approach based on the Malmquist index

Accessibility, the relative access to markets, is a strategic concept in all economic models with a spatial dimension and its prominence has been acknowledged in many economic research fields and policy debates. This paper is based on the assumption that infrastructure drives economic accessibility and, therefore, we can assimilate a production function approach where the road network constitutes a set of inputs yielding access to markets as output. Methodologically, we originally measure the infrastructure inputs accounting for the real used network and calculate a series of new final and intermediate demand gravity-based and locational indicators, which capture a wide range of economic transactions and represent different concepts of economic accessibility outputs. The value added of this paper is translating a non-parametric frontier approach (DEA) to a dynamic scope (Malmquist indices) by connecting the regional accessibility to the productivity of the road infrastructure inputs associated with each region. Results during 1995–2005 show a low relative accessibility of the Spanish NUTS-3 regions, although improvements have been greater over the last five years. Finally, we observe a U-inverted relationship between the accessibility gains during these years and the geographical localization.     

Accessibility,mobility, and realized travel behavior: Assessing transport disadvantage from a policy perspective

Limited accessibility and mobility can result in decreased quality of life and well-being, as well as social exclusion. In the United States (U.S.), rural and small urban communities suffer from transport disadvantage due to a lack of transit and a low density of employment, education, recreation, and other opportunities. While the international literature has produced a number of methods and frameworks to assess transport disadvantage and its impacts, the U.S. has lagged behind in providing pertinent studies. The objective of this paper is to establish comprehensive measures that can support the identification, evaluation, and quantification of transport disadvantage in U.S. rural and small urban communities, considering both data availability and the unique characteristics of the U.S. The concept of transport disadvantage in this paper denotes the disadvantage of a specific population group or area that results from a difficulty accessing transportation and/or opportunities. To achieve this objective, this paper develops a spatial multi-perspective approach to account for the three essential elements of transport disadvantage: accessibility, mobility, and realized travel behavior.The developed approach provides an assessment of transport needs and need gaps that can be of benefit to small urban and rural communities and their planning practices, as well as to transport providers. The analysis in this paper suggests that—from a policy perspective—a combination of measures that account for all three essential elements of transport disadvantage should be considered, because the results of each measure complement those of the others. This paper illustrates the proposed approach using a case study of Indiana. The findings suggest that a great part of rural and small urban Indiana presents a low density of opportunities and that transport-disadvantaged residents of such areas might experience the impacts of low transit supply as well. In addition, the findings suggest that residents of rural and small urban areas travel longer distances on their day-to-day activities.This paper attempts to advance the national research pertaining to transport disadvantage and provide a framework that can support planning and policy decisions at the community as well as at the state level.     

Measuring regional differences in users' perceptions towards interurban toll roads

Public acceptability is crucial to achieve the successful implementation of certain policy initiatives. In the transport sector, this is especially relevant for toll roads since they entail a burden to the users. Previous literature in this field has mainly focused on analyzing the influence of different individual characteristics on attitudes towards road charges, without clear results. However, other context-specific drivers such as regional parameters may also play an important role to explain users' attitudes, especially when the implementation of tolls within the same nation varies throughout regions. The goal of this paper is to analyze regional differences in users' perceptions with regard to tolls as an appropriate way to finance the provision of road infrastructure. Based on a nationwide survey conducted to road users in interurban toll roads in Spain, we develop a multilevel logit model to explore regional differences in drivers' perceptions. The research concludes that differences identified seem to be more influenced by context-specific variables, related to either the characteristics of the toll road or the region, than by the characteristics of the individuals. The paper also underlines the negative effects of an asymmetrical distribution of toll roads across regions on users' perceptions, since those territories especially suffering the burden of tolls show a more negative attitude towards road charging.     

The impacts of high-speed trains on British economic geography: a study of the UK’s InterCity 125/225 and its effects

The arrival of high-speed trains (HSTs) leads to unprecedented time-space effects, potentially assisting face-to-face contacts in knowledge-generating process, yet its wider spatial-economic impacts are still open to debate. This research attempts to fill in this gap with empirical evidence by studying the inter-regional impacts of upgraded British InterCity 125/225 on British economic geography over 30 years. The six study routes of London-outbound trains serving major railways stations in 26 local authorities were selected as units of analysis, with the observation of differential effects both between HSTs and non-HSTs towns and among each group of towns, to understand time-space effects of InterCity 125/225 whose potential impacts on local economic strength and knowledge intensive development. The key findings suggest that the differential HST effects on British economic geography could be classified into three influential zones, namely 1-h, 2-h, and over-2-h towns. HST has had substantial and demonstrable effects in aiding this transition within a 2-h travel limit of London, thus helping to generate renewed economic growth, but that the effects have not been automatic or universal. Regarding future British HST policy, the implications arising from this study is that cities connected to a new HST could seize opportunities which non-HST cities will not be able to do so, but this is not a zero-sum situation. Instead, it involves a national strategy to develop a hierarchical network with HST between London and key regional hubs, well integrated at these hubs with intra-regional transport systems. This indicates a strong case for a finer-grained and deeper probing analysis at an intra-regional level of the potential for rail improvement as an agent of change in city-region development. We hope to report further on this in a subsequent paper.     

Regional airport choice: Consumer behaviour and policy implications

The analysis of origin airports in multi-airport regions has a well established tradition in transportation and regional economics. The main goal of the paper is to estimate the importance of the different attributes that determine origin airport choice. In our case we adopt a stated preference approach to study this problem and evaluate the effects of possible policy interventions. We also perform a detailed segmentation of the sample studied according to the socio-economic variables that prove statistically relevant when interacted with the attributes used to characterise airport choice. Moreover, in order to test for the presence of heterogeneity in agents’ preferences we estimate several mixed logit models with different specifications, including heteroscedasticity and error component. With respect to previous studies we develop and extend the traditional SP approach by also analysing the role and relevance of attribute cut-offs in this research field. The policy simulations produced are based on the estimation of airport-specific attributes. The study concentrates on a multi-airport region in central Italy where four competing airports are located.     

Using accessibility indicators and GIS to assess spatial spillovers of transport infrastructure investment

This paper proposes a methodology to measure spatial spillovers of transport infrastructure investment and to monetize them by distributing the costs of the infrastructures envisaged according to the regional distribution of the potential accessibility benefits. We use a transport master plan (the Spanish “Plan Estratégico de Infraestructuras y Transporte” 2005–2020, PEIT) as a case study for applying our methodology. In order to calculate and map regional spillovers, economic potential values are computed using network routines in a Geographic Information System (GIS) by comparing two scenarios: firstly, the scenario PEIT 2020; and secondly the scenario which includes the improvements envisaged for the year 2020 in all the regions except the region whose spillover effects are being analyzed. The differences between these two scenarios represent the potential spatial spillover effects of this region on the rest of the regions. This procedure is repeated for each of the Spanish regions in order to calculate a matrix of inter-regional spillovers in economic potential units. In a second step, this matrix is monetized by distributing the costs of the investment in infrastructures envisaged in the region according to the regional distribution of the economic potential benefits. This inter-regional matrix of investments flows characterizes the “inner”, “export”, and “import” values of each of the regional road investments. Subtracting from the direct investment the exports to other regions and adding the imports from other regions, an estimation of the real investment of the plan in each region taking into account all the spillover effects is obtained. This value can be compared with the direct investment in the region, analyzing whether one region has more or less direct investment than real. The proposed methodology makes it transparent which regions benefit more from national transport investment irrespective of where the investment occurs. The spillover matrix can be a valid instrument, especially in federal states or in the case of transnational projects, in the field of regional economics because it offers very useful information for both planners and policy makers.     

Investigating socio-spatial differences between solo ridehailing and pooled rides in diverse communities

Transformative mobility services present both considerable opportunities and challenges for urban mobility systems. Increasing attention is being paid to ridehailing platforms and connections between demand and continuous innovation in service features; one of these features is dynamic ride-pooling. To disentangle how ridehailing impacts existing transportation networks and its ability to support economic vitality and community livability it is essential to consider the distribution of demand across diverse communities. In this paper we expand the literature on ridehailing demand by exploring community variation and spatial dependence in ridehailing use. Specifically, we investigate the diffusion and role of solo requests versus ride-pooling to shed light on how different mobility services, with different environmental and accessibility implications, are used by diverse communities. This paper employs a Social Disadvantage Index, Transit Access Analysis, and a Spatial Durbin Model to investigate the influence of both local and spatial spillover effects on the demand for shared and solo ridehailing. The analysis of 127 million ridehailing rides, of which 15% are pooled, confirms the presence of spatial effects. Results indicate that density and vibrancy variables have analogue effects, both direct and indirect, on demand for solo vs pooled rides. Instead, our analysis reveals significant contrasting effects for socio-economic disadvantage, which is positively correlated with ride-pooling and negatively with solo rides. Additionally, we find that higher rail transit access is associated with higher demand for both solo and pooled ridehailing along with substantial spatial spillovers. We discuss implications for policy, operations and research related to the novel insight on how pooled ridesourcing relate to geography, living conditions, and transit interactions.     

Coupling tourism development and agricultural processes in a dynamic environment

The role of agriculture in the Israeli economy has been declining, and a combination of essential trends has resulted in the emergence of tourism as alternative sources of economic growth in rural areas. These changes have created a new situation, in which tourism-related developments in the rural areas of Israel have become part of the activities of many farm owners. Thus, the Israeli rural environment is a single, tightly coupled system and should be analysed as such. The growth of rural tourism in the Israeli agricultural sector raises several questions, addressing whether rural tourism and farming are synergetic, and the effects of tight coupling between tourism development and agricultural processes. This article presents a simulation model of the coupling effects in which tourism development and agricultural processes are tightly coupled. Our model examined large numbers of different scenarios and the possible outcomes of a decision the farm owner takes in a routine situation of uncertainty. A typical Israeli farm owner embarks on tourism development activities mainly because of stress. Our model shows that adding tourism activities does not increase profit dramatically, but it does increase the variance of profit, which means greater exposure to risks.     

Sustainable leisure life modes and rural welfare economy. The case of the Randers Fjord area,Denmark

As increasing attention has been paid to rural tourism as a specific form of tourism development, so too has the scope of research into tourism in rural areas become more diverse. Typically, studies focus primarily upon the economic developmental contribution of rural tourism, although a significant amount of work has been undertaken on the consequences of rural tourism development and attitudes/motivations on the part of visitors and/or local communities. However, no attempt has yet been made to integrate studies of both visitors and local communities within the framework of rural tourism development policy. The purpose of this paper is to address this gap in the literature. Drawing on a study of tourism in the Randers Fjord, a relatively underdeveloped area of rural Denmark, it identifies and analyses three groups of tourists characterised by life modes: (i) traditionalists, (ii) peace seekers and (iii) adventurers. In each case, expectations, behaviour and future needs are revealed through qualitative interviews. The predominant (traditionalist) life mode of tourists, it is argued, closely matches that of the area's residents. This, the paper suggests, presents significant barriers to the development and enhancement of tourism, as do the prevailing economic structures and employment patterns. Thus, tourism development policy should take into account both tourists' and locals' life modes in order to progress towards sustainable rural tourism development. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Transport policy instruments and transport-related social exclusion in rural Republic of Ireland

One of the core commitments of rural development is to ensure social integration whereby all people get the opportunity to realise their full human potential. Despite this, there is still poor regard given to how people live and work in rural areas and how economic and social policies impact on their quality of life. Using the example of the Republic of Ireland, this paper explores how rural development policies are being undermined by other policy instruments (specifically transport) which have a contradictory impact and, rather than relieve rural disadvantage, further compound the exclusion of some sectors of rural society. Assessing rural development and transport policy instruments; trends emerging from the most recent 2002 Census Data; and case study evidence relating to the rural transport initiative (RTI) in the Republic of Ireland, this paper confirms the lack of integrated policy thinking and in some circumstances the exacerbation of further rural disadvantage.     

Route-charging policies for a central European cross-border upper airspace

The introduction of the Central European Air Traffic Services Upper Area Control Centre controlling the upper airspace of several European countries allows different route-charging policies. The impact of three charging scenarios on aircraft operators is examined. It is found that, without a compensatory mechanism, the policy of having different unit rates for each air navigation service provider would adversely affect regional and region-based carriers because the unit rate of the new provider would be significantly lower than the unit rates of the national providers controlling the lower airspaces.     

A methodology to develop a geospatial transportation typology

We introduce a methodology to develop a geo-typology (geotype) that categorizes each location in the United States in terms of their main drivers of transportation demand and supply. We develop the first comprehensive set of geotypes for both urban and rural areas across the entire United States. This typology is designed to facilitate national level modeling of multi-modal transportation system's response to alternative investment strategies differentiated across different types of locations. We develop a two-stage clustering procedure to systematically and quantitatively characterize the ways in which locations across the nation are similar or different with respect to their potential response to investment strategies of interest. First, we cluster all 73,057 census tracts, using factor analysis and the CLARA clustering algorithm into “microtypes” based on their street network and economic characteristics. Then we cluster regions (core-basic statistical areas and counties) into “geotypes” using PAM clustering according to their commute configurations, polycentricity and density. The resulting set captures both local and regional variation. These microtypes and geotypes are comparable across all locations, enabling a national level perspective, while maintaining sufficient heterogeneity to support a variety of transportation analyses capturing critical geographic variation.     

Anatomy of tourism crisis: explaining the effects on tourism of the UK foot and mouth disease epidemics of 1967–68 and 2001 with special reference to media portrayal

This paper studies the UK foot and mouth disease (FMD) epidemics of 1967–68 and 2001. It briefly analyses the characteristics of each outbreak of disease and the contrasts between them. The paper then assesses the effects on the UK tourism industry from both outbreaks and also focuses on the role of the media in its portrayal of the effects. Data are gleaned from secondary sources such as BBC archives of radio and television programmes, other media such as key newspapers, as well as specialist journals and government reports. The study concludes that the 1967–68 outbreak had only a limited actual effect on tourism (and an even more limited effect as perceived in the media), whereas the 2001 epidemic had a much larger effect — actual and as perceived in the media. It is suggested that there are many explanations for the differences, including the time of the year of the outbreaks, the spatial spread of the disease, the amount of countryside that was deemed to have restricted access and the growth in supply of rural tourism operators. The changed character of news reporting itself created some different effects — the media role in the 2001 crisis was not entirely passive. Indeed, the paper finally stresses that the role of the media is crucial in tackling any future such crisis — the media can be harnessed as a key element of tourism contingency planning. In this respect there is, indeed, much similarity between the 2001 FMD crisis and other current crises worldwide. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.