Encounters in the Fields – Tourism to the Battlefields of the Western Front

The First World War is now slipping beyond the realm of lived experience, yet it continues to wield a profound fascination over the British modern imagination. The Western Front in France and Belgium, which was the decisive theatre of operations for the Allied troops, has fashioned its own mythology and imagery and has secured a firm place in modern memory. Although the unremarkable topography of the region now visually betrays little of the momentous nature of the battles fought across its expanses, thousands of British visitors travel to the area throughout the year. This paper explores the ways in which tourists embarking on commercial coach tours engage with the battlefield landscape by examining contemporary tourist performance. It also considers the role of the tour guide in setting and directing the tourist encounter.     

Effects of the Asian Crisis on the geography of Southeast Asia’s air traffic

An examination is made of how the Asian Crisis of 1997–1998 has affected the geography of air traffic within Southeast Asia and between the region and other parts of the world. The study’s context is provided by an examination of extra-regional and intra-regional air transport networks in 1965 and 1995 to highlight the key features of the period of rapid traffic growth. This exercise is repeated in 1998 and comparisons are made with the 1995 pattern to gauge the impact of the Crisis on the geography of air traffic and the variable response of major regional carriers. Interpreting the many extra-regional and intra-regional patterns emerging from this data comparison proved difficult. Some of the readjustments and realignments can be attributed to the Asian Crisis, others cannot. There are many explanations of these patterns just as there are multiple causes of the Crisis. As the Crisis is related to wider interconnections of the globalising economy it cannot be seen as a separate and isolated event. Invariably, the general effect of the Crisis meshes with specific political factors.     

Where does flygskam come from? The role of citizens’ lack of knowledge of the environmental impact of air transport in explaining the development of flight shame

A growing number of citizens are concerned about the environmental impact of air transport, and aviation has become synonymous with high carbon emissions and global warming, which has led to the development of flygskam (or flight shame) in Europe. While its impact on air traffic remains unclear, flight shame has forced the airline industry to react and better understand its origin. In this research, building on the growing literature on industry and organizational stigma, we assume that flight shame can be partly explained by a distorted public perception of the environmental impact of air transport. Accordingly, we investigate the level of knowledge of the environmental footprint of air transport. Based on a sample of 1018 French respondents, we reveal that more than 90% of respondents overestimate the share of air transport in global carbon emissions. We also show that 98% of the respondents underestimate the reduction in carbon emissions per passenger. Finally, we investigate the awareness of the measures taken by the industry to curb its carbon emissions and highlight, for instance, that 70% of respondents overestimate the fuel consumption of the newest generations of aircraft. Based on these results, we draw lessons for airlines and for the air transport industry to help cope with flight shame in Europe.     

Same city—different options: An analysis of the work trips of married couples in the metropolitan area of Oslo

The question raised in this paper is in which ways the urban structure interacts with or creates different conditions for activities made by men and women. To explore this question the paper focuses on the travel to work of married couples in an urban context, how they adapt time use and deal with the spatial choices of work places and the allocation of transport resources. The empirical analyses are based on a personal travel study from the Oslo-region in 1990/91. Women work closer to their homes than the husbands, and have less choice on the geographical labour market. In families with one car, the husband has the first choice. Women have more often tasks on the way to and from work related to household responsibilities.     

Aviation and the environment in the context of the EU–US Open Skies agreement

We examine the impacts of the EU–US Open Skies agreement on the environment on emissions from the aviation sector. We use the Hamburg Tourism Model of domestic and international tourist numbers and flows, to estimate these impacts. The Open Aviation Area will result in increased competition between carriers and falls in the cost of transatlantic flights. This will not only have implications for the size and structure of the industry but also for climate policy. The paper assesses what effects the expected increases in passenger numbers will have on CO₂ emissions and tests whether this increase in travel will result in a corresponding rise in emissions. Simulations show that passenger numbers arriving from the US to the EU will increase by between 1% and 14% depending on the magnitude of the price reductions because of substitution between destinations, the percentage increase in global emissions is much smaller (max. 1%) than the increase in cross-Atlantic traffic.     

Borders in tourism: the transformation of the Swedish–Finnish border landscape

Permeability in the European internal borders has increased, challenging state-centric tourism development in the border regions. The aim of this article is to examine the development of the Finnish–Swedish border, which has been one of the European Union's internal borders since 1995, as a tourist attraction. An examination of the path of tourism development in this border region shows that the differentiative meaning of the border that has been characteristic for state-centric tourism development has diminished and some of the excitement of crossing the old east–west border has vanished. At present the significance of the border for local tourism development can be seen in the new cross-border enterprise and commercialisation of tourist attractions. Such development can have a wide-ranging influence for the reorganisation of border landscape and dissolution of mental boundaries in the region. This study contributes to an understanding of the transition in the European Union's internal border regions from the perspective of tourism.     

Urban transformation and diffusion of tourist practices: visiting Alcântara at the turn of the twentieth century

This article examines the effects of tourism on the transformation of the perception of the urban world. I aim at exploring the role that tourist practices have played in the evolution of the organisation and uses of urban spaces or, in other words, in the way the city has been experienced and lived. The development of tourist practices and situations has contributed to framing the discontinuous progress of urbanisation. To better understand this process, I propose to move beyond exploration of specific tourist contexts and places, and to think about the complex relationship between, on the one hand, the material and social arrangements of the city, and on the other, the discourses and representations produced around it. My research draws on a specific case study, namely: The transformation of representations of the Alcântara neighbourhood in turn-of-the-century Lisbon, from an industrial suburb to a popular and ‘urban’ place [Vidal, F. (2006). Les habitants d'Alcântara. Histoire sociale d'un quartier de Lisbonne au début du XXe siècle [The inhabitants of Alcântara. A social history of a Lisbon neighbourhood in the early twentieth century]. Villeneuve d'Ascq: Presses Universitaires du Septentrion]. During the turn to the twentieth century, Alcântara became ‘visible’ and ‘visitable’. The former industrial suburb was thenceforth perceived as a pleasant and urban place, both in a practical way (patent, for example, in the experience of walking down the streets or of visiting industrial sites) and in a symbolic way (through the construction of neighbourhood identities and heritage policies).     

Strategic land use planning for freight: the experience of the Port of London Authority, 1994–1999

Government policy is giving ever stronger support for the idea that freight should be carried by rail and water where possible. However, it can be the case that growth is made difficult due to lack of suitable expansion land. This article reviews how one organisation, the Port of London Authority, sought to safeguard sites that would be required in the future to meet growth targets. Advice is offered to industry practitioners on how to benefit from this experience.     

Does the theory of the ‘core’ explain why airlines fail to cover their long-run costs of capital?

The major air transport markets at the early part of the 21st century are failing to generate sufficient revenues to cover their long-run costs. Many airline are being supported by subsidies, going out of business (e.g. Sabena, Ansett, Canadian International, Swissair) or having to resort to various forms of financial restructuring such as afforded by Chapter 11 bankruptcy laws in the US (US Airways, Midway, National). The effects of the terrorist attacks of September 2001 have exacerbated this situation, but the data suggests the problem be more deep routed in the ‘deregulated’ markets that now exist in many parts of the world. This paper concerns itself with the issue of whether there are intrinsic features of the scheduled network airline industry that makes the current structure of liberalized markets unsustainable. It highlights on a number of features of this market but pays particular attention to the question of whether the market is naturally prone to excesses in competition that, because of its nature, forces airline fares down to the level where full costs cannot be recovered. It focuses in this sense on a long established concept in economics, namely does a core exist in this market. The fact that there is prima face evidence to suggest that the core is empty then leads to a discussion of appropriate policy reactions that may allow a more sustainable market structure to survive.     

For the young and old alike – An analysis of the determinants of seniors’ satisfaction with the true door-to-door DRT system EcoBus in rural Germany

Mobility and transportation service requirements change with growing age. Also in a car-based society like Germany many seniors need to give up driving the car and are dependent on relatives or public transport. Especially in rural areas, the accessibility of public transport is often limited. Demand responsive transportation has occasionally been proposed by researchers as a viable alternative to stop-, route- and time-based public transportation to address such problems. This case study analyses passenger data from the true DRT system EcoBus to identify distinct drivers of old passengers’ satisfaction compared to other passengers. Contrary to existing literature, older people stated to be even more satisfied with the service then younger travellers did. Moreover, older travellers tend to travel alone, but showed slightly higher satisfaction when travelling in groups. The results suggest that older people might be more open-minded and positive regarding flexible public transport schemes than expected.     

Assessing the ‘value’ of new transport initiatives in deprived neighbourhoods in the UK

In the context of growing policy awareness in the UK of the links between transport and social exclusion, this paper describes case-study research of four different transport projects funded under the UK Department for Transport's Urban Bus Challenge Fund (UBC) with the specific aim of facilitating social inclusion in the areas they serve. Through surveys and interviews with end-users, the study qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated the value of these new services to local residents in terms of their increased economic opportunities and other quality of life benefits. It also aimed to identify their wider contribution to the renewal and regeneration of the deprived areas they serve through depth interviews with professional local stakeholders.     

Why Huddersfield? Media representations of a festival of contemporary music in the ‘unlikeliest’ of places

A festival of contemporary music was established in 1978 in Huddersfield, an industrial town in northern England. The event acquired an international reputation, enjoyed to the present day. Yet the news media continued to report as ‘surprising’ the successful juxtaposition of avant-garde art with an industrial town. An explanation is constructed via an analytic discussion of fashionability, the avant-garde, and the nature of continuing news. This discussion is further set within the context of the generic urban transition from the industrial to the post-industrial, and the movement known as cultural regeneration. The work of Simmel, Nietzsche, and Bourdieu are deployed in these analyses. The concluding argument is that the news media are relating, simultaneously, three stories: that of the success of a festival; that of the cultural regeneration of urban centres seeking a role in a new economy; and a generic rags-to-riches narrative. The news reporting of the Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival is thus a multiple metaphor for a continuing cultural change.     

Informing tourism policy with statistical data: the case of the Icelandic Tourism Satellite Account†

The Tourism Satellite Account (TSA) is a popular internationally recognized method for measuring tourism's contribution to the economy. The credibility and visibility of tourism as a distinct economic activity are, therefore, based on TSA data which have the power to show its macroeconomic importance. According to the most recent World Tourism Organization study, 60 countries around the world implemented TSA in one way or another in 2010. However, in the same year, a research carried out by the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development revealed that the usage of TSA for tourism policies is rather limited due to specific issues, such as the lack of knowledge about TSA, inadequate international comparability, and timeliness. This paper illustrates several possibilities of using enhanced TSA estimates in the Icelandic context for informing tourism policies. Specific examples are presented of developing data on tourism-related investment (Tourism Gross Fixed Capital Formation) and governmental consumption for selected collective services related to tourism (Tourism Collective Consumption). These improve the usefulness of the TSA as a statistical instrument for sound tourism policies.     

Does CSR contribute to the development of rural young people in cultural tourism of sub-Saharan Africa? Evidence from the Niger Delta in Nigeria

ABSTRACT

We assess the impact of a new corporate social responsibility (CSR) model of multinational oil companies on the development of rural young people (RYP) in cultural tourism in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. Six hundred RYP were sampled across the rural Niger Delta region. Using the logit model, results indicate that RYP have remained widely excluded from the General Memorandum of Understandings (GMoUs) interventions in cultural tourism projects due to the traditional beliefs that cultural affairs are prerogatives of elders, a caveat to the youths. This implies that if the traditions of the communities continue to hinder direct participation of the RYP from the GMoUs cultural tourism project interventions, achieving equality and cultural change would be limited in the region. The findings suggest that since handicrafts are key cultural products consumed in the tourism industry, GMoUs can play a role in helping to create an appropriate intervention structure that will be targeted towards youth empowerment in the area of traditional handicraft. This can be achieved if the Cluster Development Boards would focus on integrating rural young artisans into local tourism value chains, ensuring they benefit economically from the sector, and creating space for the views of RYP indigenous handicrafts knowledge.     

Methodological approach for assessing the potential of a rural tourism destination: An application in the province of Cáceres (Spain)

Evaluating the resources in a tourism destination is one of the previous tasks in the development of its comprehensive planning. There are many criteria to use in order to evaluate tourism resources; but, independently on the number of attributes considered the fact is that not every criterion is equally important in the process of evaluation and ranking of the tourism potential of a destination's resources. In contrast to other well-known methodologies, the aim of this paper is to propose a methodology to weight qualitative and hierarchical evaluation attributes by estimating a discrimination parameter. In this research, an item response theory (IRT) model is used, the graded response model, to estimate each attribute's discrimination coefficient. This parameter will be the basis to propose a weighting system for the entire set of attributes. Graded response model (GRM) will also allow establishing a hierarchy of resources by constructing a continuous latent scale, where it will be possible to position every analysed resource in the tourism destination. The applicability and robustness of the IRT methodology will be tested using data from rural tourism resources in the Spanish province of Cáceres.     

Success factors for the privatisation of airports—an airline perspective

This article examines different approaches to airport privatisation. It shows that privatisation can only be a success when government provides a suitable regulatory framework prior to privatisation. This framework must protect the interests of the consumer and ensure the participation of airlines as primary users in the privatisation project, thus establishing a solid basis for a strong partnership between the airlines and the airport. To accomplish this, the monopoly income of an airport should be subject of a price cap mechanism following the single till principle, best being set up in cooperation with the airlines and controlled by an independent regulator.     

SOCO's impact on service outcomes of tour guides: the moderating effect of customers’ shopping orientation

This research examines the effects of both sales-oriented and customer-oriented service strategies of tour guides on service outcomes: rapport, customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, and willingness to tip. This research also investigates how customers’ shopping orientation moderates the above relationships. A convenience sampling was conducted and 370 valid questionnaires were obtained. The data were analysed using structural equation modelling. The findings are as follows: (1) customer-oriented strategy of tour guides has a significantly positive impact on the service outcomes; (2) selling-oriented strategy of tour guides has a significantly negative impact on customer satisfaction and customer loyalty; and (3) shopping orientation of tour members moderates the relationships between selling orientation and service outcomes. Thus, if tour guides can provide service for customers in a suitable way, they will then improve the customers’ perception of services. These findings provide practical information for travel agencies and tour guides.     

Volunteer tourism: at the crossroads of commercialisation and service?

Volunteer tourism as a phenomenon and as a market has come a long way since its ideologically driven early days. It is now an established and ever commercialised market that meets the demand for a different travel experience for the more morally conscious traveller, while at the same time it provides opportunities for economic gain for the organisations that act as brokers of such experiences. This interaction raises several ethical issues in terms of serving a mission while making economic gains. In general, there is an acceptable relationship between monetary gain and altruistic service, within the context of enlightened self-interest provided that the beneficiary of economic gains diverts profits into serving their mission. This paper examines the supply for volunteer tourism for evidence of commercialisation and profit-driven behaviour and investigates a relationship between monetary gain and serving a mission by creating public goods.