论马克思宏观性的货币理论

货币理论是马克思经济理论体系中一个非常重要的组成部分。马克思对整个资本主义经济体系的分析,都是建立在货币理论基础之上的。对货币而不是产品的追逐,使资本主义成为货币经济而不是西方主流经济学中的交换经济,货币在资本主义或市场经济中占有特别重要的作用,其量的变化决定着市场经济运动的方向。从马克思内生性的货币理论出发,可得到资本主义经济在长期保持相对稳定而短期则不断波动的结论。所以,客观认识马克思货币理论的主要内容,不仅对正确理解马克思宏观动态性的理论体系有着十分重要的意义,而且对建设有中国特色的经济学和货币调控有非常重要的借鉴意义。     

Of clouds and clocks and Keynes: conceptions of reality and the growth of knowledge function of money ∗

In this paper, John Maynard Keynes' General theoryand the concept of money are given an evolutionary interpretation. This interpretation is based on Karl Popper's delightful essay ‘Of clouds and clocks: an approach to the problem of rationality and the freedom of man’. The essay presents two things: Popper's conception of indeterminism and his general theory of abstractions. Popper's general theory concerns the role of abstractions and rule-governed, hierarchical systems of abstractions in structuring an indeterministic and uncertain world. He applies his general theory to science.Popper maintains that science is an abstract, rule-governed, linguistic process that facilitates criticism as a way of learning about our world. Popper calls this the growth of knowledge function of science. Popper's general theory can be applied to Keynes' General theory. Following Popper, I argue for a conception of the economy as a rule-governed, monetary language of commerce that facilitates critically minded inquiry in the domain of ordinary economic transactions. A monetary system facilitates the growth of commonsense knowledge in the economy. I call this the growth of knowledge function of money. An awareness of indeterminism and a growth of knowledge like function of money seem to pervade Keynes' General theory.     

The Role of credit in a Keynesian monetary economy

Abstract

This paper describes the features of a monetary economy on the basis of Keynes's distinction between a real exchange economy and a monetary economy. In The General Theory, Keynes identifies the reasons for the non-neutrality of money by highlighting the store of wealth function of money; this approach has been adopted by most Keynesian economists. The aim of this paper is to show that such an approach only partially explains the reasons for money non-neutrality and that important elements which demonstrate the relevance of monetary variables emerge when the means of payment function of money is considered. Investigating the role of this function requires that we deal explicitly with how spending decisions are financed. The paper argues that the market for credit must be considered separately from the market for money, and that a viable credit theory can be built from Keynes's post-General Theory writings.     

Parametric external economies and the Cambridge controversy on returns

Abstract

When French economists read The Purchasing Power of Money, they were primarily interested in the equation of exchange and the reformulation that Fisher proposed regarding the quantity theory of money. This reading led them to ponder the meaning that should be given to this theory and to study its empirical significance. Some of them, namely Rueff and Divisia, went further still and considered Fisher's work as a starting point for their own analyses, which were related in particular to the monetary index, the integration of money into general equilibrium theory and the analysis of monetary phenomena in an open economy.     

Money growth rules and price level determinacy

Do exogenous money growth rules produce price level determinacy? This is a classic topic in monetary theory. This paper contributes to this literature by examining the effect of money demand timing. The paper demonstrates how conditions for determinacy vary depending upon whether the theoretical model uses “cash-in-advance” timing or “cash-when-I'm-done” timing. This issue is addressed in an endowment economy and a standard production economy.     

The value and security of money. Metallic and fiduciary media in Ferdinando Galiani's Della moneta

This paper proposes a new interpretative framework for Galiani's monetary theory. The main argument is that, by adopting “the methodology of successive approximations” (correctly attributed to him by Luigi Einaudi), Galiani investigated the theoretical foundations of the two archetypal moneys: metallic money and paper money. On these foundations, he developed the model of a complex monetary economy based on the coexistence of a metallic and a fiduciary circulation. The paper also illustrates how the experience of the “public banks” of Naples inspired his analysis, thus shedding new light on the theoretical and institutional richness of his monetary thought.     

Money and growth in a cash-in-advance economy with costly credit

This paper develops a stochastic growth model with a cash-in-advance constraint, costly credit, and intermediary services. We study how the behavior of financial intermediaries affects the relationship between economic growth and the monetary system. We show that the payment that intermediaries charge for providing financial services influences the money–growth relationship. When the intermediation cost increases proportionally with credit purchases, we do not observe any influence of growth on the monetary system. When the intermediation cost is not proportional to credit purchases, growth is responsible for a transformation of the monetary system, i.e. money is relatively driven out of the economy as the economy grows.     

A Thoroughly Embodied Economics: A Review of Personalist Economics by Edward J. O'Boyle

In a debate on the future of monetary policy and the displacement of money, Woodford argued that, even if innovations should lead to a situation in which the banks' demand for reserves at the central bank is zero, the central bank can still influence the economy's interest rates because its liability is the economy's unit of account. This paper deals with these topics by considering the implications of emphasizing the function of money as unit of account. In the analysis of money from this perspective, social, institutional and economic factors play a crucial role. Money is a social and historical relation. Therefore, the displacement of money and central banks, though possible, is a complex process involving economic, social and political factors, not merely the result of innovations. The paper also looks at some aspects of Kaldor's theory, which is centered on the fundamental importance of money as unit of account.     

混沌理论在我国货币政策制定和执行中的应用

我国货币政策环境可视作混沌的复杂系统。混沌理论表明,系统在时空上的复杂结构通常隐含着简单的决定性准则,一旦这样的准则被发现,管理当局则可以观察或者控制系统内部的复杂状况,以达到预期目标。运用于货币政策的混沌理论,是指将货币政策环境看作是具有高度复杂性和长期行为不可预测性的混沌系统,其中必然隐含着复杂系统内普遍适用的简单决定性准则。如果我们掌握并始终遵循这一准则,就可以观察并控制货币政策环境这一复杂混沌系统,使货币政策目标向预期的方向发展。     

The characteristics of a monetary economy: a Keynes-Schumpeter approach

Mainstream monetary theory considers money only as an instrumentmeant to facilitate trading without having any effect on incomeor on the evolution of the economic system. The aim of thispaper is to elaborate a monetary theory capable of supportingthe thesis of money non-neutrality based on the arguments developedby Keynes and Schumpeter. The synthesis of the theories of thesetwo great economists will be formulated starting from the twopoints which are common in the views of Keynes and Schumpeter.First, in contrast with mainstream theory, Keynes and Schumpeterstate that the diffusion of a fiat money induces a radical modificationinto the way in which the economic system works. Second, whenKeynes and Schumpeter describe the reasons why money and financialaggregates are not neutral, they highlight the fundamental roleof the credit market and of banks; in contrast with the mainstreamtheory, they do not consider the credit market as the mirrorimage of the goods market.     

The monetary autonomy of Finland: What can the time series analysis tell us?

The effectiveness of domestic monetary policy under fixed exchange rates is highly dependent on the response of the foreign exchange reserves to a monetary expansion or contraction. Domestic monetary conditions, in turn, can be expected to be subject to shocks emerging from changes in reserves. These shocks can badly harm stabilization objectives if they are not neutralized. This paper analyzes the monetary autonomy of the Finnish economy during the 1970's and early 1980's using a data-oriented approach suggested byGeweke. A purely empiristic interpretation of the results would indicate that the degree of monetary autonomy is high and increasing over time. However, incorporating theoretical considerations turns this conclusion upside down. The Finnish financial system has in all likelihood experienced structural changes that have reduced the potential for effective monetary policies. On the other hand, we do not find any evidence of strong effects of reserve shocks on the domestic money and credit markets, though the importance of such shocks may have increased slightly. Methodologically, the analysis highlights that economic theory is needed in organizing empirical observations even when the point of departure is data-oriented.     

A Reconsideration of Keynes' Finance Motive*

Keynes' finance motive is a much neglected part of monetary theory. This paper reassesses the meaning and importance of the finance motive and examines the distinction between it and the transactions motive. A specification of the demand function for money is proposed that takes account of the finance motive. The advantages of this specification for analytical and empirical purposes are explained. Finally, it is shown that this specification provides a satisfactory theoretical explanation for the evidence on timing between the real and monetary sectors; evidence thought by some to be inconsistent with Keynes' theory of liquidity preference.     

On Marx's Analysis of Money Hoarding in the Turnover of Capital

The formation of money hoards, which underpins the demand for money, is typically treated by mainstream monetary theory as originating in the motives of the rational individual. In contrast, Marx's discussion of money hoarding treats hoard formation as a necessary tendency of capitalist production and circulation rather than as a result of the individual's predilections. Based on Marx's analysis, this article identifies several structural reasons for money hoard formation in the circuit of capital. It is also shown that Marx's discussion, despite its insight, suffers from a technical error in analysing the overlapping of production and circulation time in the circuit, and in drawing the implications for hoarding. Finally, it is argued that the broader significance of capitalist money hoarding lies in the foundations it provides for the emergence of the credit system.     

An empirical investigation of monetary interaction in the Korean economy

This paper conducts an econometric investigation of monetary interaction in the Korean economy over the past two decades. The study pays close attention to a critical role played by broad money and an interest rate term spread in the economy. A vector autoregression reveals two cointegrating relationships, both of which are consistent with macroeconomic theory: the first relationship corresponds to a broad money demand function, while the second represents a monetary policy rule function. The cointegrated system is then reduced to a vector equilibrium correction system, which characterizes the interaction between money demand and monetary policy rule. It is also demonstrated that the preferred model is a reliable forecasting device, suggesting that the broad money contains information about the real economy in the future.     

Money Quantity and Optimal Monetary and Fiscal Policy: A Quantitative Analysis

This paper quantitatively analyzes the impact of money stock on optimal monetary and fiscal policy in a stochastic production economy with sticky prices. The numerical results indicate that a sufficient large quantity of money makes a noticeable difference in many aspects of optimal monetary and fiscal policy. They suggest that the volatile inflation in China may not be as bad as the existing theory would have implied if its large amount of money is taken into consideration.     

The Liberation of American Politics from Economy

Thorstein Veblen's going concern theory of the business enterprise has been widely received by heterodox economists. Since Veblen's era, the capitalist social provisioning process has evolved toward money manager capitalism in a dialectical fashion. At the heart of the transformation are changes in the behavior of the business enterprise. In this paper, we make a threefold argument. First, while the going concern theory of the business enterprise is still important in the account of the economy as a continuing process of social provisioning, since a viable economy requires continuing business over historical time, more and more of the economy is being directed toward financial concerns. Second, as a consequence, the social provisioning process becomes more unstable and people's welfare becomes more vulnerable. Third, the concept of a going concern is, therefore, to be modified in order to put the business enterprise in the context of money manager capitalism.     

Social status, human capital formation and super-neutrality in a two-sector monetary economy

In this paper, we study how social status affects the impact of monetary policy on the long-run growth rate in a two-sector monetary economy with human capital accumulation, and find that the super-neutrality of money, with regard to the growth rate of the economy depends on the formation of human capital. In an economy with Lucas-type human capital formation, money is super-neutral; however, for an economy in which both physical and human capital are used as inputs for human capital accumulation, the money growth rate will have a positive effect on the long-run economic growth rate. The existence, uniqueness and saddle-path stability of balanced-growth equilibrium are also examined.     

Marx Inside the Circuit: Discipline device,wage bargaining and unemployment in a sequential monetary economy

The aim of this paper is to show that Marxian labour theory of value can be consistently interpreted in terms of the monetary circuit model, where firms need initial finance to start production and where the money supply is endogenous. In contrast to the recently revived Marxian monetary models, in particular the New Interpretation, it is argued here that although the money wage is bargained for on the labour market, the real wage is determined by firms' choices, since firms autonomously determine the structure of production and hence real consumption for the working class as a whole. This does not mean that firms are able to set the real wage without economic and social constraints. Starting from our circuitist reading of the labour theory of value and distribution, a model is developed in order to determine the level of employment and income distribution, on the assumptions that (i) the industrial reserve army affects wage bargaining and labour effort and that (ii) workers react to the failure of their expectations on the real wage by reducing their work intensity. In this context, it is shown that firms may increase their share of profits over time only be means of innovations.