The drama of interaction within business networks

We propose a dramaturgical approach to the understanding of business networks with particular reference to IMP research. Our purpose is to focus upon immeasurable processes and practices too often neglected by the tangible, variance modeling of business networks (Colville & Pye, 2010; Rinallo & Golfetto, 2006). This paper follows our call to take language and communication more seriously (Ellis, Lowe & Purchase, 2006). The inventive fluidity of communication, in the form of dramaturgy, when added to the rather more entitative IMP model of Actors, Resources and Activities (Håkansson & Snehota, 1995) creates a more processual, theatrical ‘scenario’ of Actor-Characters, Resource Props and Scripted Activities. We employ the dramaturgical approach of Goffman (1956, 1961) which, in keeping with the approach of the IMP Group is centrally attentive to social interaction. In order to illustrate the potential contribution of this approach, we apply this dramaturgical perspective to the interactions described in a published case study (Helander & Möller, 2007, 2008a, 2008b).     

Mapping alternatives: A commentary on Cova,B. et al. (2010). ‘Navigating between dyads and networks’

In this paper, we explore the mapping metaphor in its various guises within B2B marketing and, particularly, IMP research. We explore these multiple mapping techniques in terms of different mapping styles that point to different types of research journey, different sights along the way and different destinations. We critically appraise ‘dead mapping’ approaches, which we see as a persistent cause of getting lost and advocate ‘second order’ mapping as a more suitable alternative. We focus our critique upon Cova, Prévot, and Spencer (2010)'s paper ‘Navigating between dyads and networks’.     

Sense-making and management in business networks — some observations, considerations, and a research agenda

Business networks are complex webs of interdependent exchange relationships within which companies and individual managers operate. They consist of manifold actors, complex interactions, as well as organizational structures and resource transformation processes. Business managers cannot just capitulate vis-à-vis this complexity. Making sense of complex business networks helps managers to understand their own position, as well as their available options for change. Similarly, research in the area of sense-making and management in business networks may help us understand how managers cope with the contextual complexity in business networks, and how managers construct the forms in which this complexity appears. This paper identifies six major research themes that need to be taken up in the future with regard to sense-making and management in business networks, and discusses some methodological issues to advance our knowledge in this area.     

Dimensions of space in business network research

Interactive processes constitute a core notion in business exchange, leading to the concepts of relationships and networks. The constitution of process, comprising unfolding events, activities, and connected structures, relies on difference in space and time. While research has been devoted to time, the concept of space has thus far remained largely unexplored within business network research.This conceptual paper focuses on spatial dimensions for conducting research according to the IMP business network approach. Business actors create connected relationships and networks that exist and change as continuous emerging spatial structures and as mental maps in the managerial mindset. These relational network processes and structures are located, distributed and experienced in and across space. Drawing on economic geography and conceptual frameworks from the business network approach, we propose new dimensions and conceptualizations of space for the study of these networks. The paper delivers proposals to extend our current understanding of business networks as emerging and changing spatio-temporal entities with implications for theory development, research and practice.     

Illegal activity in the UK halal (sheep) supply chain: Towards greater understanding

Food supply chain theory and practice assumes that the processes involved are legal and value adding. In this paper, using examples from the UK halal (sheep) meat supply chain, we outline a value extracting value chain through a mixed methods qualitative approach consisting of face-to-face-interviews and a documentary research strategy underpinned by Narrative Inquiry. Building on previous theoretical work on Illegal Rural Enterprise, we present a narrative of an individual rogue-farmer, and explore his involvement in the illegal halal (‘smokies’) trade over a fifteen-year period. The paper provides a compelling story that will enable investigators to better understand illegal enterprise from a supply chain perspective and more adequately address the concerns stated in the UK Fraud Act 2006. The paper will be useful to food standards agencies in that furthers our understanding of entrepreneurial practice and morality in the food industry. The results demonstrate that illegal rural enterprise is a multi-faceted concept that requires an understanding of business practices and processes alongside a multi-agency approach to enterprise orientated crime. Our approach suggests that supply chains can be ‘flipped’ in order to understand illegal processes in addition to conventional legal processes.     

Knowledge networks for new technology–based firms: an international comparison of local entrepreneurship promotion

This paper reports on an international comparison of three organisations established to promote new business start–ups in the USA, UK and Canada. A ‘knowledge–based’ approach is adopted to examine how networks of would–be entrepreneurs interact with networks of experienced entrepreneurs and managers, venture capitalists, technical experts, consultants, IPR lawyers and other specialists. This interaction is promoted and mediated at the local level by the three organisations at the centre of the study: the Austin Technology Incubator (ATI), Texas; Connect, Edinburgh; and the Canadian Environmental Technology Advancement Corporation (CETAC–West) in Canada. These act as local network–nodes or ‘knowledge integrators’, as well as ‘incubating’ new ventures to increase the new business ‘birth rate’ in their respective regions. The comparison is based on interviews and secondary data that describe the initiation, development, operation and local impact of these organisations. Findings stress the importance of the regional context as a source of particular kinds of knowledge and expertise that may promote or inhibit new technology–based business start–ups. In particular: the scale, scope and quality of ideas and business proposals in local networks; the availability of relevant expertise and experience for ‘intelligent selection’ and for successful mentoring; the nature of rewards and incentives for all players; and the importance of local champions or figureheads, are all factors that help explain differences across the example regions. The paper combines a variety of conceptual approaches around the idea of regional knowledge networks which underpin ‘distributed innovation’. Heightened technological and market uncertainty for new technology–based firms places a premium on the ability of entrepreneurs to integrate specialist knowledge and utilise expertise from a variety of local sources. Despite differences in the scale, scope and effectiveness of their efforts we conclude that all three organisations are supporting ‘accelerated learning’ amongst entrepreneurs.     

Change and transformation of networks and relationships — Fundamental aspects of business reality

The phenomenon of the international Industrial Marketing and Purchasing Group (IMP Group) is, that despite the fact that it is informal in character, it has been possible to build close and lasting relationships between many researchers from all continents who have been developing their research over the last 40 years.The research carried out in the beginning by the IMP Group was very phenomenon-driven in character. Researchers associated with the IMP Group were linked because they viewed companies as being a network of interdependent entities and this view was commonly described in literature as the IMP network approach. Change is a fundamental assumption embedded in the network approach. Changes occurring in networks are caused by interdependency, interactions and mutual adaptation.The issue of change and transformation is important not only due to the aforementioned nature of the IMP network approach, but also due to the need to take into consideration new phenomena appearing and/or gaining strength in the context of company networks, technological changes facilitating the development of direct relationships on the business to consumer market, the change in the behaviour of a range of market leaders, based upon vertical integration, a change in the position of entities, which to-date have been peripheral within the network (e.g. subcontractors), the development of technology and global communication networks influencing a firm's ties within the internationalisation process, ever-growing competition drives the need to look for the actual impact of the overall relationships of a company on its economic performance. Referring to these issues this article serves to announce the 32nd Annual IMP Conference that will be held in Poznań, Poland, this year where discussion will focus on change and transformation of networks and relationships.     

Inter-cognitive representations in business networks

This study aims at conceptualizing the different outcomes of inter-cognitive representations, such as manifestations of agreements between business actors, legally binding contracts, and industry standards and regulations which are developed through interactions between actors in business networks. Inter-cognitive representations inscribe shared understandings and thus prove an objectified basis for further interactions within the business network. To advance the study of inter-cognitive representations in business networks, we develop a conceptual framework that integrates two conceptual dimensions, namely, 1) ‘shared understanding of rules’ and 2) ‘interaction among interdependent actors’. The framework allows us to formulate four theoretical propositions that provide alternative hypotheses, which deserve further research and empirical testing.     

IMP and service-dominant logic: Divergence, convergence and development

This article arose directly from discussions at the 2nd Otago Forum on Service-Dominant (S-D) logic held at the University of Otago in December 2008. It builds on the papers presented and discussions at the forum, on previous papers within the S-D logic field and relates these to the research of the IMP (Industrial Marketing and Purchasing) Group. The article focuses on two important conceptual issues that appear to need further development by both S-D logic and IMP researchers: Firstly, the identity and characteristics of the business actor in an interacted business landscape and second, the nature of value and its creation and delivery. The article also seeks to use some IMP ideas on business interaction in an attempt to refine and clarify the central S-D logic concept of ‘service’ between companies. Finally, the article attempts throughout to draw tentative conclusions about the implications of this conceptual analysis for practitioners.     

An exploration of the ‘dark side’ associations of conflict,power and dependence in customer–supplier relationships

The purpose of this paper is to present the findings from a critical literature review of the ‘dark side’ issues related to three constructs, namely conflict, power and dependence, in customer–supplier relationships. Previous research has focused on discrete characteristics that influence relationships, but there is a paucity of research that considers the intertwining of a set of characteristics that may create darker associations or consequences for relationships. The paper contributes to IMP literature through this investigation of darker associations of relationships as much of the previous literature on customer–supplier relationship development has been concerned with building trust, developing commitment or managing long-term goals and mutuality (IMP Group, 1982).The paper considers the research on conflict, power and dependence in relationships, tracing its development from January 1980 to the end of 2014, and assessing the dark side issues raised in previous research, placing particular emphasis on ‘asymmetric’ customer–supplier relationships.The contribution of the paper lies in its critique of this focused body of literature and in the development of a better understanding for future IMP researchers on the derivations, foundations and findings concomitant to the ‘dark side’ of conflict, power and dependence in customer–supplier relationships. The paper proposes themes and future avenues of research related to the dark side of conflict, power and dependence, placing emphasis on the ‘bi-polarity’ of each relationship characteristic, the dynamics of relational benefits, the consequences of their evolution on inter-organizational trust and its impact on the dark side of relationships. Hence, the paper contributes through the identification of potential research areas and propositions to guide future conceptual developments in the field.     

Evolutionary economics and the markets-as-networks approach

The paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the markets-as-networks (or IMP) tradition in industrial marketing and evolutionary economics. Five analytical dimensions are used: unit of analysis, methodological practice, core frameworks and models, key assumptions, and theoretical antecedents and origins. Evolutionary ideas have long been incorporated into economic theorizing. This paper concentrates on the new evolutionary economics associated particularly with a research tradition centred on the work of Nelson and Winter [Nelson, R.R., & Winter, S.G. (1982). An evolutionary theory of economic change. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press]. There are several important parallels between this research tradition and the IMP or markets-as-networks tradition. It is proposed that the markets-as-networks tradition could be enriched by seeking explicitly to incorporate elements of an evolutionary process into the dynamics of change within inter-firm relationships and networks. Evolutionary economics would benefit from explicit consideration of the likelihood that inter-organizational routines, rather than individual firm-based routines, play an important part in the evolutionary process.     

Resource interaction and resource integration: Similarities,differences, reflections

The purpose of this paper is to provide a state-of-the-art comparison of the conceptualization of resources in ‘Resource Interaction’ (IMP) and ‘Resource Integration’ (SDL). Both are engaged with understanding how value is (co)-created, but with different emphases. Existing comparisons are limited and out of date. We trace how each has evolved over time by analyzing key developments. The focus of SDL has shifted from operant resources towards resource integration, and from a dyadic view towards ecosystem contexts. Within IMP, research takes a network perspective in investigating the nature of resource interaction in a variety of empirical contexts. An analysis of similarities and differences highlights key assumptions, the classification of resources, and the role for the actor. The comparison offers a thorough understanding of Resource Interaction and Resource Integration. The paper concludes by proposing suggestions for further research for Resource Interaction.     

Are products striking back? The rise of smart products in business markets

The business world is experiencing a shift away from ‘physicality’ due to the ubiquitous growth of the service sector and a progressive shift from selling product to offering service. Yet, at the same time, with regard to technology-based phenomena such as the Internet of Things (IoT), it is physical products equipped with sensors that are at the centre of the transformation. Our research seeks to understand how business products become smart products. It focuses on how product physicality (visibility of smartness; additional functions) and product ecosystems (product connectedness; degree of autonomy) are changing, and the resulting issues for marketing managers. We propose a typology of smart products along two dimensions: ‘Product Attributes’ and ‘Ecosystemic attributes’. We distinguish four categories of smart products: More Efficient Products (MEPs), Augmented Products (APs), Products as a Node (PN), and Products as a Hub (PH). In each category, a product acquires a certain degree of ‘digital enhancement’, ‘embeddedness’ and ‘transformativeness’, as we describe. We also discuss several implications of our work both at the theoretical and managerial levels.     

Knowing me,knowing you: Self- and collective interests in goal development in asymmetric relationships

This paper investigates how self-interests and collective interests in goal development are manifested in the context of asymmetric customer–supplier relationships. Taking an interaction approach (IMP Group, 1982), a conceptual structure highlighting possible patterns of characteristics of the asymmetric customer–supplier relationship and approaches to self- and/or collective interests in goal development has been created.Based on a multiple case study approach, the findings suggest that smaller suppliers who deliberately pursue self-interest in their business activities with larger customers experience better outcomes. Larger customers recognise that the creation of collective business goals enhances the outcome of joint efforts in terms of market impact and profitability. The findings also highlight that trust is perceived as a necessity for the development of collective interests in asymmetric relationships and that the power of the larger customer is not perceived as a constraint. A key conceptual contribution is the identification of two distinct types of asymmetric relationships: ‘product/technology-oriented’ in which self-interest dominates by focusing on one party's resources for developing new products or technology and ‘complementary competencies-oriented’ in which collective interests link the competencies of the larger and smaller party for new joint business ambitions.     

How firms learn in NPD networks: The 4S model

This paper examines how firms learn in new product development (NPD) networks. While existing research in business and industrial marketing has significantly advanced our understanding of learning within single firms and in dyadic relationships, our knowledge of inter-firm learning across direct and indirect business relationships in NPD networks remains limited. We address this limitation by conducting multiple case study research to develop a more holistic understanding of learning in NPD networks that is captured in the proposed 4S model. Drawing on an integrated theoretical perspective and the empirical results of three case studies, we propose that firms engage in iterative cycles of syndicated, situated, selected and synergised modes of learning in NPD networks.     

Technological advancements and B2B international trade: A bibliometric analysis and review of industrial marketing research

In the current business and political climate, deliberations concerning international trading agreements and their importance to B2B firms are increasing. Although the volume and value of international exchanges are growing, this study reveals that literature exploring issues concerning B2B international business, and particularly the role technological advancements play supporting B2B cross-border trade, is limited. This paper provides an overview of research contributions published in the Industrial Marketing Management (IMM) journal in order to reveal the current state of knowledge, identify research gaps, and propose further research directions. Following a two-stage approach, we reveal that although ‘trade’ is at the heart of IMM research, there is a scarcity of empirical studies examining technological advancements and B2B international, as well as local, trade; some attention, however, has been placed on the exploration of B2B international trade issues. Building on our findings, we propose future research directions.     

Connecting IMP and entrepreneurship research: Directions for future research

As a research field, entrepreneurship emerged from an increasing interest in fostering new business ventures. Over the past decade, interest in entrepreneurial phenomena also triggered several studies in the IMP research stream. We examine connections between these two research streams in terms of the phenomena in focus, key concepts, and approaches to identify research areas fruitful for advancing our understanding of entrepreneurial phenomena. In pursuit of this aim, we analyzed 48 IMP-based entrepreneurship studies and the abstracts of the 227 most cited papers in eight main entrepreneurship journals; among the latter, we conducted an in-depth analysis of 30 articles, in which we found connections with IMP studies. Based on our analysis, we identify four directions for future research, where confronting and bridging the key concepts has the potential to contribute to conceptualizing entrepreneurial phenomena and related theory development. The four areas are: variety in the context of new ventures; multiplicity of networks embedding new ventures; connecting the new venture to its context; and the new venture's learning and management.     

Sensemaking in business networks: Introducing dottograms to analyse network changes

The issue of how different actors in a network understand changes to their industry remains an under-researched but crucially important area. According to the industrial network approach, companies interact according to their perceptions of the relevant network environment and their subjective sensemaking of the network logic and exchange mechanisms relating to the activities, resources, and actor bonds. Using a case study of the Norwegian/Japanese seafood distribution system, we propose a methodology that allows us to better understand these perceptions. We develop an analytical method based on ‘dottograms’ which facilitates a more detailed understanding of change within networks. In particular, we show how the dimensions of time (past, present and future changes) and space (change at actor, dyad or network level) can be better understood, and also how the method facilitates our understanding by ascribing reasons for the change. As such, we provide a methodological contribution to research on business networks and change.