技术变化、要素替代和贸易对能源强度影响的实证研究

本文运用1981—2005年的投入产出时间序列数据,采用超越对数生产成本函数估计了我国制造业20个部门能源、非能源、资本以及劳动的份额方程,对我国制造业20个部门的技术变化、要素替代以及贸易和能源强度之间的关系作了实证研究。计量检验的结果表明,技术变化、要素替代、贸易、一次能源结构和部门结构变化是引起能源强度变化的重要因素。     

Estimating the impact of investing in a resource efficient,resilient global energy-intensive manufacturing industry

To examine the prospects of creating a resource efficient, low-carbon economy, this paper focuses on the impacts of investing in energy, water and waste. The broader industrial sector, as well as six energy-intensive manufacturing industries is studied. A system dynamics model is developed for each selected sub-sector, which is embedded in a broader integrated framework to fully appreciate the linkages within the industries and across the economy, environment and society. This study further simulates and analyzes the key factors affecting the economic performance and environmental impacts of these industries in a resource efficient scenario compared to a business-as-usual (BAU) case. Our analysis indicates that with no additional resource-efficiency and conservation actions taken, these industries – highly exposed to rising fuel prices under BAU – will suffer from declined profitability over time. Under the alternative scenario however, an incremental investment in efficiency will not only substantially curb energy demand and emissions, but will also effectively reduce energy expenditures in all analyzed industries yielding an overall positive return on investment after nine years. Though the extent of cost saving varies across the sub-sectors due to the variation in energy mix, they will all see considerable reduction in unit production costs and increase in operating margins and profits in the medium to longer term.     

Examining the global environmental impact of regional consumption activities — Part 1: A technical note on combining input-output and ecological footprint analysis

In recent years there have been a number of attempts to develop a more comprehensive approach to the issue of measuring resource use and/or pollution generation embodied in trade flows, including contributions that combine input-output techniques and Ecological Footprint analysis. In this two-part paper we describe how to enumerate the resource and/or pollution content of inter-regional and inter-national trade flows (Part 1) and we present a literature review of recent methodological and empirical developments (Part 2). It is straightforward in principle to extend the basic input-output approach to capture international trade flows. However, in practice, problems of data availability and compatibility, and of computability of extended input-output matrices, mean that simplifying assumptions are generally applied, but with the implications of these assumptions often not made fully explicit. What appears to be absent from previous applications is an account of the analytical method by which Ecological Footprints should ideally be estimated in an international input-output accounting analysis. This allows an explicit analysis of the problems that prevent the application of the full method and identification of the most appropriate short-cut methods in a transparent way. The objective of this paper is to provide such an account.     

A NOTE ON MEASURING SECTORAL INPUT PRODUCTIVITY*

This note attempts to shed some light on the relationship between the total factor productivity derived from national income accounts and the total input productivity based upon input-output accounts, especially on a sectoral basis. Since there has been no positive evidence to support a constancy between changes in net and gross output in individual industries, the formulation of a measure of sectoral input productivity change by using the formula of the Divisia index based on input-output accounts may be valuable in examining possible biases which are associated with a common notion of the total factor productivity. An operational definition of sectoral input productivity change and its relation to sectoral total factor productivity are discussed in the present note, in addition to its empirical application to the Japanese data.     

中国贸易含碳量及其影响因素--基于(进口)非竞争型投入产出表的分析

本文基于(进口)非竞争型投入产出表估算了1987-2007年中国的贸易含碳量及其部门分布和国别(地区)流向,并通过结构分解分析了六大因素对其变化的影响.结果表明,2005年以来中国已经成为碳的净输出国.贸易含碳量的迅速增加主要是由贸易规模的增长带来的,不断降低的部门能源强度则是抑制其增加的主要因素,而进出口产品结构、投入结构、能源结构及碳排放系数的变化对其影响较小.     

PRIM I: A MODEL OF THE PRICE AND INCOME DISTRIBUTION MECHANISM OF AN OPEN ECONOMY

PRIM I is a numerical model which has been extensively used as a basis for an income policy in Norway in recent years. It is a static, cost-push, input-output model. Wage rates, agricultural prices, productivities and world market prices are treated as exogenous variables, and the model derives short-term changes in income shares and in the national price level from changes in these exogenous variables. A key feature of the model is a distinction between "exposed industries" which are subject to strong foreign price competition, and "sheltered industries" which are relatively free of such competition. These two groups of industries are found to react with very different pricing policies in response to increases in costs; furthermore, possibly for technological reasons, the export industries have greater scope than the majority of the sheltered industries for compensating cost increases through productivity gains. These two facts are shown to have important implications for a price and income policy. It is demonstrated, i.a. that the goal of a stable national price level is, in general, inconsistent with the maintenance of stable income shares when exchange rates are kept constant.     

异质性能源消耗强度变化及其影响因素分解——基于四川省可比价能源投入产出表

基于2002—2007年四川省可比价能源投入产出表,分析了四川省6部门的异质性能源的完全能耗系数的变化趋势;采用因素分解法,将能耗强度总量变动的影响因素分解为直接能耗变化、产品技术变化和最终需求结构变化,并分析了不同因素对能源消耗强度变化的影响程度。结果表明:2002—2007年间,除农业外,其他产业部门的煤炭完全能耗系数均呈下降趋势;除了建筑业的天然气完全能耗系数呈上升趋势外,其他产业部门的该系数均呈先升后降的趋势;最终需求结构变动促使各类能源的消耗强度总量呈正向变化;直接能耗变动是影响4类能源的消耗强度变动的最主要因素。     

Whose policy uncertainty affects trade flows between Japan and the U.S.?

Previous studies mostly assumed that the effects of policy uncertainty on trade flows are symmetric. In this article, we add to this literature by arguing and demonstrating that the effects could be asymmetric. Since asymmetry analysis requires using non-linear models, such models yield a more significant outcome than linear models. We show this by considering the trade flows of 66 two-digit U.S. exporting industries to Japan and 59 two-digit Japanese exporting industries to the United States. While both the linear and non-linear models predicted short-run effects of the U.S. and Japanese policy uncertainty on exports of most industries, the long-run effects were significantly different. In the long run, while the linear model predicted no significant effects of either uncertainty measure, the non-linear model 12 (14) U.S. exporting industries that were affected by changes in the Japanese (the U.S.) policy uncertainty measure and six (10) Japanese exporting industries that were affected by changes in the Japanese (the U.S.) policy uncertainty measure. Several large industries were among the affected industries.     

中国产业能源消耗效率变化的实证分析——基于投入产出方法

运用投入产出模型研究中国产业的能源消耗效率,构造一个能源消耗的投入产出模型,从实证角度利用该投入产出模型对中国三次产业的能源消耗效率进行分析,分析结果表明:2007年与2002年相比,三次产业的直接能源效率不断提高;同时除天然气外,其他三类能源的完全效率也明显提高。最后从能源消费结构、优化产业结构的角度提出有关提高我国三次产业部门的能源消耗效率的对策与建议。     

Identification of industrial complexes from the input-output tables of Canada and the USA: Some empirical tests

In large disaggregated input-output tables the conventional practice of triangularizied hierarchy of industries may not always work. Very often there are sets of industries which are mutually related by backward and forward linkages such that they represent coherent groups that are unrelated to the remaining industries in terms of transactions taking place in the input-output tables. To identify such coherent sets or blocks of industries which we call industrial complexes in the input-output tables has been the major objective of this paper. An algorithm is designed to meet this objective that also avoids the irrelevance and complications of the multivariate analyses that are usually applied to such a search.Some empirical tests are then performed to discover the industrial complexes from the input-output tables of Canada, 1961 and 1966, and the US, 1963.     

Labour protection in Western Europe

This paper represents an attempt to pinpoint the factors influencing the shape of tariff walls in the Common Market countries. Specifically, it tests the correlation between tariffs and factor intensities of the protected industries; it is found that there is a strong positive correlation between tariff and unskilled labour intensiveness. However, this correlation may be concealed if other factors affecting commercial policy are not taken into consideration (such as the desire for self-sufficiency in food and energy and the determination to foster research- and development-intensive industries) or the use of alternative means of promotion (subsidies) is neglected.     

Energy discounting

The procedure described allows comparison of various energy transformation processes, including those using fossil fuels, solar energy, and conservation. The procedure allows a determination of the relative feasibility and desirability of each process for producing a surplus of energy beyond the output that could be obtained directly from the process energy (i.e., the energy needed for self-reproduction). The analysis includes all energy directly or indirectly committed to the process, throughout the entire economy.To quantify the feasibility of energy transformation, an input-output ratio was calculated for 44 processes. The calculations exclude fuels transformed directly into energy output. Adjustments were made for differences in quality, end use, and time of use. A low ratio means that the process should receive further research and development funding or else should be dropped from consideration. The input-output ratio of a feasible transformation process may decline with time because of a resource scarcity, indicating a falling desirability. Highly desirable processes, ones with ratios that show the least signs of declining, should also be compared for future use on the basis of their relative effects on labor needs, capital requirements, the demand for critical material, and their environmental impact. Policy conclusions are hampered by an unevenness in the quality of the available data. Nevertheless, a useful and comprehensive method of energy analysis is demonstrated.     

CUTTING CARBON EMISSIONS AT A PROFIT (PART II): IMPACTS ON U.S. COMPETITIVENESS AND JOBS

This article examines how an integrated least-cost implementation of the Kyoto Protocol in the United States would affect U.S. competitiveness and jobs. Drawing on previous work, the authors analyze integrated emission reduction strategies based on a $50/ton carbon tax (including border tax adjustments), a payroll tax cut, energy-productivity–oriented market reforms, and international flexibility mechanisms. This policy portfolios is compared to conventional approaches that omit market and fiscal reforms.
Input-output data are used to estimate the impact on export prices of goods and services produced in the United States. Similar data are used to translate changes in GDP and energy production into employment impacts in energy and nonenergy sectors. The costs of providing transitional assistance for workers in the coal industry are compared to the GDP benefits of a profitable Kyoto strategy.
The analysis shows that relative to purchasing international emission rights, productivity-raising domestic market, institutional, and fiscal reforms offer much broader advantages for tradE-exposed U.S. industries. Though allowance purchases alone increase export prices of U.S. manufactured goods and services, an integrated no-regrets strategy reduces export prices for the large majority of U.S. industries and limits the impact of climate protection policies on the few most energy-intensive basic materials industries to very small levels. Relative to the baseline, an integrated least-cost implementation of the Kyoto target increases economy-wide employment levels by several hundred thousand jobs in 2010.     

STRUCTURAL CHANGE IN THE AMERICAN ECONOMY, BY FUNCTIONAL INDUSTRY GROUP

In this paper, we reclassify U.S. input-output data along functional lines by analyzing the use of products represented in the detailed coefficients of the 1967 interindustry study. Our new categories comprise 11 producing "industries," services (nonproduction), energy (nonproduction), marketing, distribution, other general, crude materials, semi-finished materials, energy production, service production, and machinery replacement, furnishing products to 80 consuming industries. This functional input-output system is then used to analyze postwar structural change in the American economy. Distinct shifts in the uses of different types of inputs are indicated and the implications of these results are discussed.     

DISAGGREGATION OF STRUCTURAL CHANGE IN THE AMERICAN ECONOMY: 1947–1966

This paper utilizes input-output techniques to disaggregate and analyze structural change in the American economy between 1947 and 1966, focussing on the subperiods 1947-58, 1958-63, and 1963-66-periods determined by the availability of input-output tables for the terminal years. There was wide variability in the changes in output requirements among industries, but in all periods changes in final demand and in input-output coefficients tended to reinforce each other. Increases in final demand for an industry's output tended to be accompanied by increases in demand for its product as intermediate input, and vice versa. Plastics, utilities, drugs, and computing machines showed increases for both final consumption and intermediate consumption, whereas such industries as coal, wooden containers, and leather products were of declining importance for both consumption and production.     

民营企业如何进入战略性新兴产业——以陕西省为例

以陕西省为例,对民营企业如何进入战略性新兴产业的市场准入路径进行研究,将新能源、节能环保、新能源汽车归为与资源和环境直接相关类别;将新一代信息技术、高端装备制造、新材料、生物技术归为与资源和环境间接相关类别,对这两种类别的市场准入原则及针对每一个行业的实施方式分别进行了设计。     

Patterns and strategies of Foreign Direct Investment: the case of Japanese firms

This paper is to study globalization motives and strategies of Japanese manufacturing industries by analyzing the causes and patterns of foreign direct investment (FDI) of Japanese manufacturing firms. We use regression analysis to determine internally driving-out factors and externally-inducing factors. Japanese FDI strategy has gone through three different stages; from natural resource-seeking investment in the 1950s and 1960s to market-expansion investment in the 1970s and 1980s and to a combination of cost-reducing (low-cost labor-seeking) investment and market-penetrating investment in the 1990s. Our findings show that Japanese FDI in Asia and other developing countries tends to be in labor-intensive sectors where Japanese firms are losing their comparative advantages at home. The main motive for FDI into these regions is low-cost resource seeking. On the other hand, Japanese FDI in the US and Europe tends to be knowledge-intensive sectors where Japanese firms attempt to internalize transaction and information costs by globalizing its production. The main motive for FDI into these regions is market-seeking.     

中国研究与发展投入产出效率分析——基于数据包络分析模型的视角

研究与发展活动对企业竞争力的提升起着重要的推动作用,通过数据包络方法对中国2009年R&D投入产出效率进行分析发现,目前中国R&D投入产出效率总体水平较高,但行业之间、地方之间效率水平存在较大的差异,且研究能力与管理水平低是大部分地区和行业的R&D投入产出效率低的重要原因之一。     

Renewable Resources,Pollution and Trade

Detrimental spillovers from industrial activity onto resource‐based productive sectors are very common, yet their effects remain understudied. While international trade often creates conditions for the over‐exploitation of open‐access renewable resources, it also provides opportunities for separating different productive sectors spatially. The existing literature suggests that a diversified exporter of the renewable resource good tends to lose from trade in both welfare and conservation terms as a result of over‐depletion, while the exporter of the non‐resource good gains. However, the resource stock externality of harvesting and the inter‐industry pollution externality often coexist in reality. In a small open economy framework, this paper shows that acknowledging their interaction changes the nature of the autarkic equilibrium and enriches the set of resource conservation and welfare outcomes from trade. Depending on the relative damage inflicted by the two industries on the environment, which in turn are functions of the pollution intensity and bioeconomic parameters, it is possible that the inter‐sectoral pollution externality persists and specialization in manufacturing is not optimal from a welfare perspective.     

Scale,Technique and Composition Effects in Manufacturing SO<Subscript>2</Subscript> Emissions

Combining two data sources on emissions with value-added and employment data, this paper constructs six data bases on sulfur dioxide (SO₂) intensities that vary across countries, sectors and years. This allows us to perform a growth decomposition exercise where the change in world manufacturing emissions is decomposed into scale, composition and technique effects. The sample covers the period 1990–2000, and includes 62 countries that account for 76% of world-wide emissions. While manufacturing activity has increased by a rough 10% (scale effect), we estimate that emissions have fallen by about 10%, thanks to the adoption of cleaner production techniques (the technique effect) and a small shift towards cleaner industries (between-sector effect). As output and productivity gains have been biased towards large emerging countries like China and India, which are both clean in terms of emissions per unit labor and dirty in terms of emissions per dollar, the sign and magnitude of the between-country effect depends on the choice regarding the scaling factor ( − 2% for employment,  + 25% for value-added, with a corresponding adjustment of the technique effect). The paper also shows that these estimates are robust to changes in aggregation across entities (regions or countries) and across industries, and that composition changes are correlated with changes in prices and trade intensities.

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