Labor issues and COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic has prompted Canada and several other countries to impose an economic shutdown to prevent a deadly public health crisis from becoming much deadlier. In the agriculture and food sector, several hundred thousand restaurant workers have lost their jobs. The rise in unemployment, the closing of restaurants and schools, and social distancing have triggered demand reductions for certain commodities and foods and demand increases for others, bringing along changes in demand for inputs including labor. Canadian employers of temporary foreign workers (TFWs) are facing delays and additional constraints in recruiting, but so have US and European employers of TFWs. Rising food security concerns are making protectionist trade policies popular. Domestic and foreign firms may export less and do more foreign direct investment, inducing trade in jobs.     

Agribusiness,Peasant Agriculture and Labour Markets: Ecuador in Comparative Perspective

The consolidation of capitalist agriculture in countries such as Ecuador has led to a recent revaluation of territories (central highlands) where cheap labour has facilitated agribusiness development linked to the world market. This process generates growth in the numbers of rural wage workers and the creation of a labour market that, in relation to others in several Latin American countries, has certain particularities: permanent jobs, gender balance, an absence of intermediaries and low levels of precariousness. Small‐scale peasant producers are marginalized in this context and play functional roles within the current dynamics of agribusiness firms. The organizational weakness of rural wage earners and the pursuit of clientelist relationships by firms do not allow rural workers and local communities to devise economic and social strategies that might improve their position in this ‘field of forces’ in the territory.     

西部大开发与西部农业发展问题研究

在分析农业在西部大开发中重要地位的基础上, 提出现代集约可持续农业是新世纪西部地区农业发展的根本途径;指出了西部发展现代集约可持续农业需要重点做好的几项工作。     

Sugar‐Cane and Oil Palm Expansion in Guatemala and its Consequences for the Regional Economy

Corporate‐owned sugar‐cane and oil palm plantations in Guatemala are expanding at the expense of smallholder agriculture. Land control grabs are not only having consequences for local communities and ecosystems, but also for regional economies. The present study compares the value chains of smallholder products with those of sugar and palm oil. Primary data were collected from agricultural producers and their backward and forward sectors in the agricultural regions where the plantations are most prominent. The results show that on a regional level, sugar and palm oil generate fewer jobs in comparison to the products of small‐scale agriculture, which have important forward linkages to small and medium trading and processing sectors. In addition, the wealth created by small‐scale farming remains within the regions, whereas profits from the sugar and palm oil industries are being transferred out of them. Therefore, to achieve inclusive regional development, smallholder agriculture should be strengthened rather than promoting monoculture expansion.     

U.S. National Economic Contribution of Generic Food and Agricultural Product Advertising

Agricultural promotion groups (APGs) promote the economic welfare of agricultural producers by financing generic advertising and promotion activities intended to expand demand for their commodities in hopes that the benefits will more than cover the cost. A review of the most recent evaluations of 27 major U.S. APG generic advertising and promotion programs conducted by many different researchers using widely different techniques concludes that that those programs have effectively enhanced the profits of their respective stakeholders and generated high rates of returns to the dollars invested in those programs. Importantly, this study finds that the success of those programs in supporting and growing their respective sectors of agriculture has spilled over to the general economy. The programs have created an important multiplier effect through the economy. In the process, jobs have been created; income has been generated; and economic growth has occurred.     

COOPERATIVE INSTITUTIONS: THE WIDE AND THE NARROW1

An important problem confronting agriculture is institutional adaptation to the needs and changes of yesterday, today and tomorrow. This paper looks at some challenges facing a familiar institution to agriculture — the cooperative. While other problem areas often considered distant to agriculture are focused on, it is apparent that there is much interdependence between rural and urban problems and institutional change in helping bring about solutions. With present urban problems and their likelihood of persisting for some time, the encouragement of farm people to become city dwellers may need to be more seriously appraised. Similarly there is a need for better understanding of the role of institutions, their jobs, and the socio-economic impact of alternate means in achieving them before real progress can be broadly achieved.     

Labour Demand in the Post‐apartheid South African Wine Industry

In 2013 the minimum agricultural wage in South Africa was increased by an unprecedented 51%. We use data on 77 Western Cape Province wine grape farms from 2005–2015 to estimate the impacts on employment. Previous post‐apartheid labour market reforms increased minimum wages substantially, but re‐entry to global markets after sanctions were lifted increased demand and this preserved jobs in the wine sector. However, by 2005 this demand growth had largely ceased. The long‐run wage elasticity for permanent employees was found to be ?0.4, but for casual workers the figure was ?4.7, so the 51% wage increase is likely to decimate casual employment in the future. Thus, the poorest and most vulnerable casual workers lose most in terms of jobs, incomes and secure livelihoods, whereas 80% of full‐time staff benefit from the higher minimum wages. Thus, the minimum wage change is likely to increase the gap between privileged permanent staff and casual workers. This result is not surprising in view of the long‐standing interdependence between farmers and their permanent workers in wine grape production.     

集体林权制度改革对林农就业的影响研究——以辽宁省500户农户为例

林农增收、林业增效直接决定于林农林业生产投资行为,集体林权制度改革使得林农成为林业经营的主体,林权制度改革对林农的生产、投资和就业行为的变化特征及其影响因素的研究具有重要的意义。对辽宁省的调查显示,集体林权制度改革对林农的就业行为产生了显著的影响。林改后,林农涉农劳动力投入人数和时间均有大幅增加;劳动力外出涉林打工下降,本地涉林打工增加;林业对富余劳动力的吸纳能力大大增强。     

THE LOW EARNINGS OF AGRICULTURAL WORKERS: A SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH*

This paper shows that agricultural economists have tended to account for the low incomes of agricultural workers by utilising the economic model which explains low returns to agriculture as a whole. This aproach is called low returns to agriculture as a whole. This approach is called into question by referring to regional data on workers' earnings and farmers' incomes. A sociological approach is outlined which takes account of the degree of choice open to agricultural workers to accept the earnings and conditions of agriculture.     

黑龙江省绿色农业发展的问题及对策

黑龙江省绿色农业发展水平和增长速度相对较缓慢。从生态、资源、从业人员、财政税收政策等方面对黑龙江省绿色农业发展的现状进行分析,指出了黑龙江省绿色农业生态环境恶化、政府财政扶持力度不够、劳动力素质不高、专业人才匮乏等问题,并针对上述存在的问题进行系统分析,为开发黑龙江省农业提出推进发展的解决方案,加强生态环境建设、强化科技推广、农业从业者素质提高、加强政府财政扶持力度的强有力对策和建议,以促进黑龙江省绿色农业的稳定和迅速发展。     

The political economy of agriculture for development today: the “small versus large” scale debate revisited

The role of agriculture in economic development and the development politics of promoting smallholder versus large‐scale agriculture have both been at the center of a long‐lasting and controversial debate. Using an innovative methodology which combines a value chain approach with input‐output‐analysis, the growth multipliers and productivity of both farm types in Guatemala are analyzed. Results show that smallholder agriculture has the same potential to stimulate output growth as large‐scale agriculture. Smallholder value chains include mainly informal sectors and create more jobs than commercial agriculture. Therefore, a reorientation of agricultural and land policies toward small‐scale food producers and within a comprehensive policy of integrated rural development is not only necessary in terms of social equity but also for boosting economic development.     

The Ties Made in the Harvest: Nicaraguan Farm‐worker Networks in Costa Rica's Agricultural Exports

Traditional and nontraditional export agriculture expansion dramatically changed the social and economic landscapes in the global south. An examination of one aspect of south–south international migration, Nicaraguan migrant economic integration into Costa Rica's export agriculture sector, reveals how production systems in the traditional and nontraditional agricultural sectors shape migrant social networks in distinct ways in the global south and its significance for both migrant workers and the agricultural sectors they work in. The rapid expansion of nontraditional export agriculture – the essence of agricultural development in Costa Rica – depends on the traditional crop production structure of coffee farms. The experiences of Nicaraguan migrant workers and their social ties to each other in nontraditional export agriculture and the coffee farms in Costa Rica demonstrate how different production structures call for distinct fragile and conflicted social networks ties between migrants. The economic integration of migrant workers relies on opportunistic and weak ties that are both gendered and contradictory.     

内蒙古大兴安岭林区职工转岗分流问题的思考

基于《大小兴安岭林区生态保护与经济转型规划》启动实施后,产生的大量林业职工脱离原有的就业岗位转入其他岗位,影响到职工生活、社会稳定现象,分析实施再就业工程面临的主要问题:资金短缺;转岗职工再就业观念陈旧;转岗职工的技术单一、业务素质低;职业技能培训工作的落实比较困难。提出了实施再就业工程中的基本对策:加强宏观政策引导,提高对实施再就业工程重要性的认识;切实做好转产项目选择和论证,加大再就业工程投入力度;教育和引导下岗职工转变再就业的择业观念;建立和健全再就业服务体系,加强劳动力市场的建设。     

Survey and Analysis of Labour on Organic Farms in the UK and Republic of Ireland

A survey of 1144 organic farms in the UK and Republic of Ireland (IE) was used to assess whether organic agriculture provides more labour than conventional (nonorganic) farming. The sampled farms comprised 23% of all organic farms. The jobs per farm and per area varied greatly with enterprise type and farm size, and between regions. Comparison of the survey with national statistics showed that organic farms employ 135% more FTE (full time equivalent jobs) per farm than conventional farms. The mean jobs per area was markedly lower for organic farms (1.35 compared to 2.43 FTE per 100 ha), because they are larger (216 ha compared to 51 ha). Even when corrected for the different size distribution, organic farms had more jobs per farm than the national averages (2.52 and 1.49 FTE for the UK and IE, compared to 1.28 and 1.16 FTE). The farm size weighted FTE per area for organic farms in the UK (4.33 FTE per 100 ha) was almost twice that for conventional farms. We predict there would be 19% and 6% more farming jobs in the UK and IE if 20% of the farms of both countries were to become organic (compared to the present 1–2%).     

全面停伐政策对国有林区居民家庭收入的影响

基于2014—2017年对东北、内蒙古国有林区的调研数据,采用双重差分模型(DID)评估全面停伐政策对国有林区居民家庭的人均工资性收入和家庭人均收入的影响。研究结果表明:全面停伐政策的实施对林区居民家庭人均工资性收入和人均收入均存在消极影响;家中有人在其他企事业单位上班有利于促进国有林区居民家庭人均工资性收入和人均收入的增长;从事农林经营不利于国有林区居民家庭人均工资性收入增长,虽然通过获得农林经营收入可以在一定程度上填补工资性收入的减少,但是对家庭人均收入无显著消极影响。因此,建议国家林业与草原局对国有林区居民家庭进行专项资金扶持;转岗分流安排富余劳动力;改变国有林区居民保守的就业观念并鼓励自主创业等。     

杭州、绍兴农户劳动力流动与农户土地利用群体类型的Crosstabs分析

研究目的：根据农户转出劳动力就业形式、流动规模和农户土地利用方式分别进行农户群体类型划分,探讨农户劳动力流动和土地利用的相互关系,以期为制定农村地区发展政策提供基础研究支持。研究方法：针对杭州、绍兴农户劳动力流动的情况,选择了7个村159户农民进行实地调查,在调查的基础上,对调查数据进行统计分析。研究结果：（1）调研地区农户群体类型分划基本清晰,主要为打工主导型和转出滞留型,占调研总数的50.94%、30.80%;（2）45.68%的打工主导型农户和22.45%的转出滞留型农户将土地全部转出用于农业用途,户均转出面积分别为0.12 hm2、0.14 hm2,而32.65%的转出滞留型农户则将全部土地用于耕种粮食作物,户均种植面积为0.13 hm2;（3）各类型农户目前主要为解决家庭消费用粮而耕种土地,64.20%的农户打算今后几年继续上年的土地经营状况,有扩张经营规模的农户比例相对较低。研究结论：根据不同农户群体类型的特点制定对应性实施政策,合理引导永久迁移主导型农户家庭向城镇地区转移,关注劳动力滞留型农户的土地耕种意愿,对其他4类农户群体则制定适宜的劳动力转移和土地利用保障政策。     

实行家庭承包经营制度 加快发展合作经济组织

从农业发展的基本规律及国内外农业发展的历史经验出发,阐述了我国农业实行家庭承包经营和发展林农合作组织的意义与必然性。农业的基本特点决定了农业要实行家庭经营,家庭承包经营制度是我国农村的基本经营制度。实现对土地的永续利用,要求赋予劳动者长期产权。实行家庭经营,农民与土地联系最紧密,与土地产出利益最直接,是农村改革成功的关键。集体林权制度改革是与当年实行家庭联产承包责任制一样伟大的创举。主体改革就是把集体林地经营权确权到户。在家庭承包经营基础上,通过农民自己的合作组织提供服务来逐步走向现代化,是包括林业在内的农业需要解决的重大问题。加快发展合作经济组织是加快农业经营方式转变必然之路。     

Farm Producers, Past and Present

The pace of technological advance in agriculture appears to have quickened since 1966 producing a dichotomy in the way agricultural products are produced. The production of agricultural commodities is being concentrated. Large farms are becoming larger and producing an increasing proportion of agricultural products. At the same time small and part-time farms are growing as a proportion of all farms, though their contribution to the economy in proportional terms is becoming smaller despite their large numbers.
Agricultural production is being concentrated among fewer, larger, more specialized operations, dependent upon purchased inputs, borrowed capital and more integrated with the food processing and distribution sectors. The benefits from such changes have been a highly productive food system, abundant supplies of quality, inexpensive food products and higher incomes for both those who farm and those who leave for non-farm employment opportunities.
Change, however, has come at a cost to the traditional structure of Canadian agriculture. For instance, a consequence has been an increase in the proportion of food being produced by farms organized as family corporations, integrated industrial corporations, family trusts and large proprietorships. Change has also meant declining opportunities and higher barriers to entry so that fewer people have the means to become established in agriculture. Greater mechanization and capitalization have meant fewer jobs in agriculture, and this in turn has meant a smaller rural population and the demise of some rural communities.
As farms become larger it becomes more difficult for subsequent generations to purchase them as the capital invested and credit requirements exceed amounts that can be paid for in one generation. The growth in organizational structures such as corporations or trusts which leave the farm business intact, beyond the life of the proprietor, seems in-evi table.     

Who Needs Immigrant Farm Workers? A South African Case Study

Recent writing on migration in Southern Africa focuses on the experiences and desires of migrants themselves. While it gives valuable insights, this article argues that it can obscure the role of employers in structuring migration opportunities. In the case of female migrants from Lesotho working in South African agriculture, farmer demand has clearly impacted on the spectrum of both legal and illegal employment opportunities available, with the boundaries between legal and illegal migration appearing more porous than often imagined. The demand for foreign farm workers is complex and cannot be reduced to a simple story of wage differentials with local workers. The conclusion is that if we wish to understand migration flows, and particularly the use of immigrant labour in South African agriculture, we must retain an analytical role for employers' demand.     

未来将凸显中国林业的政治、经济地位

中国农民工大军为中国的全球化、工业化和城市化提供了极其廉价的劳动力,对中国改革30年贡献巨大。同时带来的现实问题是工业化、城市化吸收和消化农民工显得极其困难。集体林权制度改革的意义及潜力使我们看到了中国三农问题破解的希望,更使人感到中国林业在未来必然凸显巨大的政治和经济地位。