Paying the pilot? The economics of subsidising international air travel to small remote island nations with large diaspora

The tourism-air transport linkage may be complicated by the presence of substantial non-tourist leisure travel flows. This paper analyses the value of direct long-haul air service to Los Angeles for two small South Pacific nations, Tonga and the Cook Islands, which were faced with demands that they subsidise the current service to ensure its continuation. Both countries are tourist destinations, but both also have sizeable diaspora of economic emigrants living abroad, which generate considerable visiting friends and relatives traffic. It turns out that the economics of this travel are quite different from those relating to foreign tourism, such that it is possible that Tonga could actually lose by having the long-haul service. The bottom line is that the Cook Islands do gain, and that Tonga probably does, though in both cases by less than the amount of subsidies that they agreed to pay the airline.     

Land-use and socio-economics as determinants of traffic emissions and individual exposure to air pollution

This paper presents a modeling framework developed for the City of Montreal, Canada, and is intended to quantify two indicators that can explain the spatial distribution of traffic-related air pollution at a metropolitan level. The indicators are estimated at the level of the traffic analysis zone (TAZ) and include: (1) the average level of emissions generated per individual and (2) the level of emissions occurring in a zone as a proxy for air pollution exposure. A regional traffic assignment model is extended with capabilities for emission modeling at an individual trip level while taking into account vehicle (type and age) and trip attributes (road type, speed, and volume). We observe that individuals who generate higher emissions from travel tend to reside in areas with lower exposure to traffic emissions while individuals associated with low levels of travel emissions (e.g. travel smaller distances, conduct less trips, and use alternative modes) reside in areas with high levels of traffic pollution. A regression analysis of the two indicators against a set of land-use and socio-economic variables shows that generated emissions per individual are positively associated with car ownership and larger vehicles, while being negatively associated with ownership of newer vehicles, and location in dense and walkable neighborhoods with high levels of commercial land-use. Meanwhile, exposure to emissions is positively associated with dense and walkable neighborhoods and negatively associated with car ownership and larger vehicles. These findings indicate major inequities in the generation of and exposure to traffic-related air pollution.     

The stickiness of cycling: Residential relocation and changes in utility cycling in Johannesburg

This paper examines the influence of residential relocation on travel behaviour by studying the adoption of utility cycling among high-income earners living in Johannesburg. Qualitative analysis of a retrospective survey broadly finds that a majority of the sample (n = 39/66) started cycling as adults in contexts other than Johannesburg with higher bicycle mode share (n = 33/39). While such initial adoption of cycling in contexts where the practice was pervasive is consistent with travel behaviour research, subsequent continuation in Johannesburg with limited utility cycling profile departs from this model. The paper suggests that this may have to do with the higher degree of travel satisfaction associated with cycling in comparison to other travel modes. Further studies should explore this proposition.     

Tourist Perceptions of Climate Change: A Study of International Tourists in Zanzibar

A study was conducted in Zanzibar, Tanzania, in order to understand tourist perceptions of climate change, the importance of climate for travel decisions, and the likely consequences of ongoing climate change for travel decisions. The results show that climatic characteristics of destinations are important, though not the only factor shaping travel decisions. Under a scenario of climate change, certain climate variables, such as more rain, storms, and higher humidity are also likely to negatively influence travel decisions, rather than higher temperatures alone, which are not necessarily perceived as negative. Regarding the contribution of travel to climate change, the study reveals that leisure tourists in Zanzibar are largely unaware of their impact on the natural environment, while the analysis of stated travel behaviour shows that they frequently travel by air. Overall, the results indicate that travel flows might change in more complex ways than currently assumed, and that a small share of high-intensity air travellers is responsible for a considerable environmental impact in terms of climate change.     

How does the propensity of living near rail transit moderate the influence of rail transit on transit trip frequency in Xi'an?

Many cities have made massive investments on rail systems to substitute transit for driving. Some studies have considered the confounding effect of attitudes in the connections between rail transit and travel behavior. However, they often focused on the average effect of rail transit and assumed that individuals' responses to transit improvements do not vary by their tastes. Using the 2014 data from Xi'an in China, this study explores the interaction effect between metro transit (heavy rail) and the propensity (i.e., predicted probability) of living in neighborhoods with metro transit on transit use. The propensity is positively associated with commute by metro transit and bus. Further, individuals with a strong propensity use transit equivalently no matter whether they live near metro transit, but metro transit tends to promote transit commute for those with a weak propensity of living near metro transit. Overall, building a rail line helps enhance transit ridership. Planners should also consider the variation in responses by individuals with different tastes when using policies to shape urban travel.     

Travelling ‘green’: is tourists' happiness at stake?

Several western governments have implemented environmental policies which increase the cost of air travel. Such policies aim to reduce the impact of air travel on climate change, but at the same time they restrict tourists in their travels. This study examines the extent to which the average tourist's happiness is affected by ‘involuntary green travel’, defined as reduced CO₂ emission travel imposed by government regulations. This issue was addressed in a study among 588 Dutch citizens who completed a self-report questionnaire containing questions about their happiness. The strongest determinant of tourists' happiness is freedom in choosing a destination. Any policy measure that interferes with tourists' freedom in destination choice will negatively affect tourists' happiness. Six percent of their happiness is at stake and potentially 17% of all holiday trips are affected. The number of tourists involved is possibly much smaller. The best options for governments are to impose taxes on long-haul destinations, which affect only a small share of all tourists, and air routes which can also be travelled by a variety of alternative modes of transport and thus less limiting to destination choice within this market segment.     

Telecommuting and other trips: an English case study

This paper investigates the importance of non-work travel to the growing population of telecommuters and the implications of this for sustainable travel patterns. Previous research has identified a link between increased online access to work and reduced proximity between residential and workplace locations. These studies raise concerns that as more people split their work activities between home and external workplace, whilst living in more dispersed locations, more unsustainable transport impacts will be generated, including higher vehicle mileage, car dependency, and less physical activity. This paper counters that the implications of telecommuting and other flexible working practices for sustainable travel behaviours may be more dependent upon the number and type of non-work journeys and the accessibility of amenities for these purposes rather than on the distance to the workplace for less frequent commuting journeys. Using the National Travel Survey for England, the travel behaviours of those who identify themselves not as home workers but as working from home at least once a week are compared to other working adults by measuring and modelling the number and purpose of trips within a week's travel diary, independent of distance or mode. Telecommuters record fewer commute trips, more trips for other purposes, and the marginal utility of additional non-work trips to telecommuters is greater than for many other socio-economic characteristics. Thus, addressing the accessibility of non-work destinations proactively through local planning has the potential to optimise the sustainability benefits of telecommuting.     

Exploring transport to arts and cultural activities as a facilitator of social inclusion

This paper explores the relationship between travel and social inclusion in relation to a relatively rarely examined group of travel destinations—arts and cultural activities. This paper examines travel behaviour to arts and cultural activities and how this relates to social inclusion. Research literature associated with these issues is examined and then an analysis of a household travel survey in Melbourne, Australia, is undertaken to explore how travel to arts and cultural activities varies by income, car ownership and location. The paper outlines a range of evidence linking participation in arts and cultural activities and positive outcomes for social inclusion. Arts and cultural activities do not fit well into traditional household travel survey definitions of trip purposes. There is also no definitional difference between travel to activities and ‘participation’ or ‘attendance’ in arts and cultural activities. This is unfortunate since social outcomes may vary by participation or attendance. Travel survey analysis shows that like other activities trip rates to arts and cultural activities increase with income. However higher participation is demonstrated for zero- and one-car households, which contrasts with previous research of work, education and social travel. Higher participation is also demonstrated for those living in inner parts of the city. The paper suggests that most travel to arts and cultural activity is quite localised and hence much travel may be led by the diversity and range of local opportunities provided. These are particularly high in inner parts of the city. A high share of travel is also demonstrated for older people, who are thought to have the time and desire for greater participation in arts and cultural activities.     

Airline type and tourist expenditure: Are full service and low cost carriers converging or diverging?

Since some years ago low-cost carriers (LCCs) are becoming less and less low-cost-like, as well as full-service airlines are becoming less and less full-service-like, thus contributing to lessen the differences between users of one airline type and the other. LCCs have made air travel available to all budgets and enabled tourists to spend more at destination by reallocating their trip expenditure. The objective of this article is to observe if airline types have been converging regarding travellers’ expenditure allocation and total trip expenditure. We use repeated cross sections of the Spanish tourist expenditure survey between 2006 and 2014, and compositional data analysis with a total in order not to confound effects involving expenditure allocation with those involving expenditure volume. Results show that users of both airline types converge in their allocation of the trip budget (between transportation and at-destination expenses, and within at-destination expenses), but diverge with regard to total trip expenditure.     

The first rapid tram line in Poland: How has it affected travel behaviours,housing choices and satisfaction,and apartment prices?

The opening of the Poznań Rapid Tram (pol. Poznański Szybki Tramwaj, PST) in the year 1997 symbolically marked the beginning of a new era in the development of urban transportation systems in Poland. In this paper we would like to address the following question: more than one decade after the opening of the PST, what are its effects in terms of travel behaviours, housing choices and satisfaction, and apartment prices? In order to answer this question, we combined data on travel behaviours and housing choices from a survey based on a sample of nearly 300 households with data on housing prices from over 1400 real estate transaction records from the period between 2010 and 2013. Our results show that the proximity to PST affects travel behaviours, as respondents living close to PST stops confirmed that they use this form of transportation more often. There also seems to be some effect on housing choices; in locations close to PST stops we found many households living in rental housing, particularly university students. Also, about 20% of interviewees declared that they would pay more for apartments located closer to the rapid tram. However, that effect was only partly confirmed through the analysis of transaction prices. Using standard and spatial econometric regressions including variables like apartment size, floor number, amenities, and type of building we found a weak correlation between the proximity to PST and apartment prices. In conclusion, we argue that treating property price effects as the main justification for public transportation projects might be a doubtful choice, because in some cases the principal impacts of such projects might be visible in terms of residents' satisfaction and travel behaviours.     

The choice of air carrier, flight, and fare class

This paper reports the development and interpretation of air traveler choice models to gain insights into the tradeoffs air travelers make when they choose among different carriers, flights, and fare classes. Such insights can be used to support carrier decisions on flight scheduling, pricing, seat allocation, and ticket restrictions. This paper develops a conceptual framework and applies it to the choice of carrier, flight, and fare class as a basis for analyzing air travel demand in a competitive market. Model estimation results are used to quantify the importance of carrier preferences, market presence, quality of service, frequent flyer program membership, schedule convenience, and fares on carrier travel demand. The empirical results provide measures of the premium that business and leisure travelers are willing to pay to avoid schedule delays, to choose a carrier in which frequent-flyer program they participate, and to obtain the amenities and freedom from travel restrictions associated with higher fare classes.     

Do rural older adults take fewer trips than their urban counterparts for lack of a ride?

Aging and the presence of one or more illnesses result in limited travel for many adults age 65 and over. Yet, the need to get to essential, social, and non-emergency medical destinations endures. At some point in their life, older adults become dependent on family/friends, or rely on for-profit/not-for-profit transportation services for their mobility needs, while some do not go on certain trips. Researchers have studied out-of-home activity and mobility of older adults using data on trips taken. There is a gap, however, in understanding trips not taken in the older adult population in rural versus urban locations. Our objectives in this paper are: (i) to investigate unmet travel needs of older adults by relying on responses for trips not taken; (ii) to examine how personal abilities, living situation, and socio-demographic factors are associated with trips not taken to various destinations; and (iii) to compare the likelihood of trips not taken due to lack of a ride in urban versus rural locations across the age and income spectrum. Our data come from a phone survey conducted across the province of Alberta, Canada, in 2017–18 (n = 1390). We specify ordinal logistic models where the dependent variable is how often a respondent did not undertake a trip due to not having a ride to various trip destinations. We find that rural seniors are more likely to not take trips compared to older adults in cities, holding all else equal including driving cessation, worsening health, and disability. Rural seniors who live alone or in low-density housing are also more likely to not take trips compared to urban older adults. Household income, however, tempers these location preferences. Our findings suggest that rural older adults can be supported through income transfers, community-based low-cost travel, and moving to higher-density residential locations.     

The relationship between air travel behaviour and the key life stages of having children and entering retirement

The airline industry sets fares in the knowledge that market segments behave differently in response to pricing changes. Traditional market segments, typically split into business and leisure travellers, can be developed further through the examination of the influence that life stage exerts upon air travel choices, particularly for leisure trips. Life stage can be defined as a specific, optional event. The two key life stages of having children and entering retirement are examined in this paper in relation to individual air travel behaviour, in order to determine the primary characteristics of the associated market segments. The paper is based on a series of household air travel surveys and focus groups. Findings show the distinct characteristics of family air travel, such as higher air fare sensitivity, as well as in-group variations due to factors such as the age of the child (or children). Retirement is also shown to impact upon air travel, affecting individuals in different ways. Some in retirement take advantage of greater time availability and fly more frequently; others will cut back, say due to health problems. Aviation industry implications, both in terms of surface access to airports and regional airport provision, are also presented.     

Household decision-making for everyday travel: a case study of walking and cycling in Lancaster (UK)

Increased walking and cycling for short journeys in urban areas has many obvious advantages yet so far gains from the promotion of more sustainable travel of this type are mostly small. This paper reports on a large research project which uses a mixed method approach to explore attitudes to and perceptions of walking and cycling, and which examines the process of household decision-making for everyday travel and the constraints that this imposes. Using survey, interview and ethnographic data it is argued that many people hold ambiguous and sometimes contradictory views of walking and cycling as effective means of everyday travel, that what they do rarely matches precisely what they believe, and that the complexity and contingency associated with everyday travel for many households is a major barrier to the use of more sustainable travel modes. It is suggested that better understanding of these processes could help to inform both future transport policy and the promotion of walking and cycling for short trips in urban areas.     

Extending public transit accessibility models to recognise transfer location

A longstanding issue for public transit agencies has been how to assess the performance of transit service including spatial service coverage to meet the transport needs of the community. The conventional approach quantifies accessibility using door-to-door travel time in such a way that accessibility declines as the travel time to the opportunity increases. A new approach to modelling transit accessibility is proposed by incorporating the potential effect of transfer location. It builds on the premise that transit users may have a preference for a transfer location best located relative to the trip origin and destination points. The model is tested in Brisbane's bus network which has a radial form, where inner-city suburbs have relatively higher accessibility than outer-city suburbs, if only travel time is counted. Incorporating the transfer location refines the accessibility modelling so that some outer-city suburbs located along the major bus corridors have a relatively higher accessibility level. The new model also suggests that inner-city suburbs do not necessarily have better accessibility. Suburbs close to the city centre may have shorter transit travel time to reach other suburbs, but they do not have a well-connected transit network to other suburbs through service transfers.     

Air travel attitudes and behaviours: The development of environment-based segments

In an era when the transport sector is increasingly contributing to environmental damage there is a need to better understand the behavioural response of consumers. Theories such as the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Norm-Activation Model have had some success in explaining pro-environmental behaviours; this paper examines the application of these to air travel. It utilises insights from previous attitude behaviour research to develop a more detailed understanding of how normative influences, individual values and other psychological factors are affected by individual attitudes to air travel attitudes and how these influence behaviour. This informs recommendations for a policy response, which emphasises the need to bring air travel behaviour in line with other energy saving household behaviours.     

Urban travel behavior adaptation of temporary transnational residents

Temporary transnational relocation is a growing type of migration. However, travel behavior adaptation of highly skilled temporary residents and its urban impacts have largely been ignored. This study extends the knowledge of mobility biographies, mobility cultures, and mobility of millennials by examining how temporary residents adapt their intra-urban travel behavior in response to a transnational relocation. The data used here comes from semi-structured interviews with students and researchers of nine different nationalities, aged between 19 and 31 years, temporarily living in Portugal (Lisbon or Porto). We found supporting evidence for the occurrence of residential self-selection, although prior information on study/workplace combined with low knowledge on neighborhood-level make it somewhat specific. Given their shortterm perspective, temporary residents are more prone to rely on public transport and non-motorized modes, having a low likelihood of purchasing vehicles. Thus, measures aimed at improving and facilitating the use of active modes can have an immediate effect on this group's travel behavior and contribute to reaching critical mass for these sustainable alternatives. Temporary residents are also a potentially interesting market segment for public transportation operators for increases in revenues, as they tend to display a relatively higher travel intensity and a wider diversity of activities and destinations. Finally, technology usage was found to reduce the stress-related to traveling to unfamiliar places by increasing the perceived spatial orientation, having the downside of generating a feeling of confidence that decreases the internalization of information. Providing timely and persuasive information at the very beginning of temporary residents' stay can help induce their travel behavior decisions.     

The end of travel time matrices: Individual travel times in integrated land use/transport models

To reduce inaccuracies due to insufficient spatial resolution of models, it has been suggested to use smaller raster cells instead of larger zones. Increasing the number of zones, however, increases the size of a matrix to store travel times, called skim tables in transport modeling. Those become difficult to create, to store and to read, while most of the origin-destination pairs are calculated and stored but never used. At the same time, such approaches do not solve inaccuracies due to lack of temporal resolution. This paper analyzes the use of personalized travel times at the finest spatial resolution possible (at x/y coordinates) and a detailed temporal resolution for synthetic agents. The approach is tested in the context of an existing integrated land use/transport model (ILUT) where travel times affect, among others, household relocation decisions. In this paper, person-level individual travel times are compared to traditional skim-based travel times to identify the extent of errors caused by spatial and temporal aggregation and how they affect relocation decisions in the model. It was shown that skim-based travel times fail to capture the spatial and temporal variations of travel times available at a microscopic scale of an agent-based ILUT model. Skims may provide acceptable averages for car travel times if a dense network and small zones are used. Transit travel times, however, suffer from temporal and spatial aggregation of skims. When analyzing travel-time-dependent relocation decisions in the land use model, transit captive households tend to react more sensitively to the transit level of service when individual travel times are used. The findings add to the existing literature a quantification of spatial biases in ILUT models and present a novel approach to overcome them. The presented methodology eliminates the impact of the chosen zone system on model results, and thereby, avoids biases caused by the modifiable spatial unit problem.     

Customer issues related to limited air connectivity

Air access can be crucial for regional economic development, especially when global industries are involved. However, air traffic generates negative impacts, such as noise and air pollution that can lead to politically motivated calls to reduce air traffic. This paper investigates customer issues and potential responses of frequent flyers to non-market-driven limitations on air transport. Based on a survey conducted at Zurich International Airport we show that frequent air travelers tend to be more senior and to work in industries that involve travel outside of the worker's country of origin. Consequently, they are more critical of potential restrictions on air travel.     

The built environment and vehicle ownership modeling: Evidence from 32 diverse regions in the U.S.

Vehicle ownership is an important determinant of the travel demand forecasting process. Vehicle ownership models are used by policy makers to identify factors that affect vehicle miles traveled, and therefore address problems related to energy consumption, air pollution, and traffic congestion. For the conventional travel demand forecasting, it logically follows land use forecasting, before trip generation, which is commonly treated as step one. The most critical limitation of the vehicle ownership models, especially in the conventional process, is that they are often related mainly to sociodemographic variables, not so much to built environmental variables. In this study, by pooling regional household travel survey data from 32 diverse regions (almost 92,000 households) of the U.S., and by controlling for socio-demographic and the built environmental variables, we estimated a vehicle ownership model that contributes to the understanding of vehicle ownership and improves the accuracy of travel demand forecasts. Two main findings of this research are: 1) The number of vehicles owned by a household increases with socio-demographic variables and decreases with almost all of the built environmental variables. For the urban planning and design practices, this finding suggests that car shedding occurs as built environments become more dense, mixed, connected, and transit-served. 2) We used both count regression and discrete choice models, and the results suggest that count regression models have better predictive accuracy. The model developed in this study can be directly used for travel demand modeling and forecasting by metropolitan planning organizations.