Attitudes of farmers in China's northern Shaanxi Province towards the land-use changes required under the Grain for Green Project, and implications for the project's success

To restore China's degraded environment, the government launched an environmental restoration project named the “Grain for Green” Project (GGP) in 1999. From 1999 to 2010, the government will spend US$ 40 billion to convert 147 million ha of farmland into forest and grassland and 173 million ha of wasteland (including abandoned farmland) into forest in 25 provinces. A primary focus is to replace farming and livestock grazing in fragile areas with reforestation and planting of forage crops. Given the project's tremendous size and number of participants, the attitudes of the affected farmers will strongly influence the GGP's success. To learn their attitudes, we surveyed 2000 farmers in 2005 to quantify their opinions of the GGP and how it has affected their livelihoods, and we discuss the concerns raised by these attitudes. Farmers appreciated the grain and financial compensation offered by the GGP, but few considered planting of trees (8.9%) or forage species (2.2%) to be a priority. Although only 19.1% felt that their livelihoods had been adversely affected by the GGP and 63.8% supported the project, a large proportion (37.2%) planned to return to cultivating forested areas and grassland once the project's subsidies end in 2018. Therefore, much of the restored vegetation risks being converted into farmland and rangeland again, compromising the sustainability of the environmental achievements. To succeed, strategies such as the GGP must compensate farmers fairly for their costs, create new agricultural products and techniques for use on more suitable land, and create job and training programs that account for the needs and desires of farmers and give them alternatives to returning to old land-use practices.     

A simple compensation mechanism for flood protection services on farmland

Reservoirs for the transient storage of water in order to lower river flood peaks would usually be built on farmland and used in case of a serious flood event. Farmers’ willingness to have their lands included in a reservoir critically depends on the compensation they will obtain. Our paper proposes a new compensation scheme that consists of an unconditional annual payment and a reparation payment conditional on flooding. We determine the properties of an optimal contract offered by the river authorities to farmers that specifies the compensation scheme and the rules for the use of the reservoir. The two-tier payment scheme induces crop choices of farmers that lower the damage profile of land use and it covers the long-term costs of land use change to ensure voluntary participation. We illustrate the working of the payment scheme using data from a case study from the river Tisza in Hungary.     

长三角水环境政策效力及耦合协调关系演化

筛选长三角三省一市2005—2020年期间的水环境政策文本,从政策力度、目标和措施3个维度建立政策效力量化框架,并运用耦合协调模型分析水环境政策在空间和工具维度上的耦合协调演化特征。研究结果表明:三省一市水环境政策效力均逐年提高,政策工具使用结构以权威型为主导但单位效力有待提高,而系统变革和象征劝诫型工具使用最少但单位效力较高;省市间水环境政策协调关系经历了失调发展、转向协调和协调发展3个阶段,其中安徽省与苏浙沪间的协调发展明显滞后,国家层面的规划政策显著促进了长三角地区水环境政策协调关系的良性转变;政策工具间的耦合协调关系从失调发展阶段到转向协调阶段,各省市政策工具间的协调关系呈现差异性,整体而言尚有较大提升空间。     

Changes in Brazil’s Forest Code can erode the potential of riparian buffers to supply watershed services

In Brazil, the Forest Code requires landholders to maintain fixed-width buffers of native vegetation along watercourses – legally called Areas of Permanent Preservation (APPs). In 2012, agricultural activities started to be partially allowed in APPs, but only if best management practices on soil and water conservation are adopted and if a narrow buffer strip with native vegetation is restored adjacently to the watercourse. In this paper, we present a modeling framework to investigate the capacity of legal compliant APPs to supply watershed services (erosion control and stream bank stabilization) in a 2,200 ha watershed in São Paulo State, Brazil. Our results suggest that the narrower the riparian buffer the lower the control of soil erosion dynamic within APPs, and that riparian buffers smaller than 8 m can act as a source of sediments to streams. The adoption of best management practices can contribute to controlling soil erosion within APPs but the presence of native forests in the first 15 m is necessary to guarantee equivalent protection to streams when compared to APPs completely covered by forests. Moreover, we observed that forest restoration within APPs helped to reduce the average soil loss of the watershed by only 20 %, compared to a reduction of 55 % when best practices are implemented in all watershed agricultural areas. We conclude that (i) the reduced requirements for APP restoration may contribute to stream sedimentation, which will likely affect the supply of watershed services by stream ecosystems; (ii) the implementation of best management practices in APPs will not have the same effect as native forests to reduce stream sedimentation; and (iii) the adoption of best management practices in all agricultural production areas – and not only within APPs as required by law – is the best strategy to promote the supply of watershed services to society.     

“Been-heres vs. come-heres” and other identities and ideologies along the rural–urban interface: A comparative case study in Calaveras County,California

The rural–urban interface is the place of transition between that which we call “urban” and that which we call “rural.” The interface is situated between two places perceived to be different, but which are indelibly linked. Although the functional differences between “rural” and “urban” people (or those seen as “been-heres” versus “come-heres”) seem to be diminishing, differing perspectives and preferences persist along the rural–urban edge. Such differences influence the way that land users, decision makers, and the community manage the environment and react to landscape change. Using a comparative case study in Calaveras County, California, I examine the differences and similarities between “been-heres” and “come-heres” along several lines: basic demographic characteristics, political party affiliations and ideologies, and conceptions of private property rights, concluding that the dichotomy is false but instructive. The been-here/come-here divide, rather than being a definitive means for characterizing stakeholders or predicting their behavior or perspectives, serves as a heuristic for understanding the starting places of certain actors. Furthermore, this kind of analysis reveals not only where and how people and perspectives contrast but also the ways that they converge. Improving our understandings differing people and perspectives is especially important as decision-makers struggle to plan for and manage livable places and sustainable environments among groups with varying preferences which may sometimes conflict.     

Misfits and compliance patterns in the transposition and implementation of the Habitats Directive—four cases

This paper investigates the transposition and implementation of the Habitats Directive in four European member states, namely Denmark, the Netherlands, Greece, and Romania, and the role that institutional misfits have played in more or less successful implementation processes. Departing in the ‘Worlds of Compliance’ literature, it also explores if this typology can be useful for understanding the ways member states address institutional adaptation pressures in the implementation steps following the transposition phase. The requirements in the Habitats Directive expanded most member states’ nature conservation frameworks, especially in the obligation to introduce pro-active conservation, and it also laid down a number of steps to be taken for creating the European Natura 2000 network. It was found that the transposition did mostly follow general compliance types, but that these types also helped understand the extent and adequacy of adaptations and changes to the institutional framework in the implementation processes following the directive’s adoption. Implementation challenges were different for different countries. They showed a need to align institutional frameworks for a) Natura 2000 in areas with several existing types of landscape protections and ensuing spatial and institutional overlaps; b) clarifying the roles and responsibilities of various authorities involved in implementation; c) ensuring coordination with the other sectorial policy areas that interact with the Habitats Directive (such as the Nitrate Directive and the Water Framework Directive). It turned out that there could be a need for more flexible and less-top-down European legislation, providing a larger room-for-manoeuvre for integration with domestic approaches.     

Principles for integrated environmental management of military training areas

Military Training Areas (MTAs) cover an estimated 200–250 million hectares globally, occur in all major ecosystems, and are potentially significant conservation assets. In some jurisdictions, MTAs may be the largest terrestrial land use category that is owned and operated by a sovereign government. Despite this, MTAs are not recognised as either a conservation or environment protection resource. Further, no MTAs are managed for their environmental values, defined as aspects of the environment that are valued by society, nor is there any specific MTA management guidance that details how both the military training and environmental values of a MTA can be maintained.We conducted a desktop review of Australian and German MTA management documentation to determine whether they contained management principles that recognised both military training and environmental values. Management documentation from these two countries was chosen as they are considered to be among countries at the forefront of MTA management globally. Our review determined that both the Australian and German management regimes do not have specific management principles for these values. This is likely to be the case for the majority of MTAs globally.For the first time, we develop MTA management principles that integrate the management of both military training objectives and environmental values. Key to achieving this integration is an understanding of the intersection of the impacts of military training on the environment, and the known, or potential, environmental values of a particular training area.To assist with the implementation of the management principles, we developed a new conceptual framework for the management of MTAs. The framework contains two adaptive management loops. The first focuses on the management of environmental values of MTAs, the second targets the military training values of MTAs. These two management loops facilitate for the development of management practices that optimise MTA management for both military training and biodiversity conservation.     

Policy directions for agricultural land use in Australia and other post-industrial economies

Farming has been the basis to work, culture and social forces for millennia. It still dominates the lives of most of the world's poorer people, but in post-industrial western countries agriculture's contribution to national economies is now minor. Nevertheless, most OECD countries’ agricultural policies are aimed at maintaining the size of this sector even where this conflicts with its economic significance or adversely affects the environment. Australia has a first world economy, but a third world export profile, with 20% of its export value derived from agriculture. Although it is efficient in agricultural man-power, this sector consumes 70% of the water and 60% of the land resources of the continent to produce food for an estimated 55 million people. Agricultural policies maintain the productivity of the sector, but are ineffective in stemming the associated environmental degradation, biodiversity loss and rural population decline. As in other post-industrial societies, Australia needs to re-define what its agriculture sector represents, environmentally and socially. This will require greater reappraisal of property rights, public and private benefits and legal structures supporting both. More effective alternative policies are needed for large tracts of unproductive farmland where environmental and social decline are endemic. This paper explores alternative options that offer more balanced prospects in the face of current paradoxes, including paying farmers directly for stewardship services, providing better incentives for retiring non-productive areas from agricultural land use, and retiring watersheds, streamlines and other areas of essential environmental function from agricultural production for better biodiversity conservation.     

Zionism and agricultural land: National narratives,environmental objectives,and land policy in Israel

The 1990s saw two different and even contradictory trends in Israel. On the one hand, there was a substantial increase in environmental awareness, on the part of both the general public and decision-makers, that led to a change in the land use planning policy at the national level. On the other hand, the Israel Lands Council (ILC), the body empowered by law to shape the national land policy, made a series of decisions that severely violated the principle of preserving agricultural land and led to massive conversion of agricultural land and open space for commercial, industrial, and residential development. Thus the national land policy became incompatible with the land use planning policy and the rise in environmental awareness it reflected.     

新形势下高标准农田建设管理政策存在的问题及建议

目的 高标准农田建设是“藏粮于地,藏粮于技”的重要措施,在粮食安全问题重要性凸显的背景下,加强高标准农田建设意义非凡。通过分析机构改革后农田建设管理政策在实施过程中存在的问题及相应措施,将为政策完善提供方向和依据。方法 文章选取4个粮食主产省的8个粮食大县进行调研,组织省、市、县各级农田建设管理部门人员、新型经营主体等,采用半结构性方式进行访谈,研究分析农田建设政策落实及项目实施中存在的问题。结果 农田建设在提高粮食产能、促进农业机械化、增加农民收入、新增耕地指标和改善农田生态环境方面发挥了成效,但机构改革后的农田政策执行中还存在机制不全、体制不顺的问题,在组织协调、资金管理、项目内容管理和制度标准方面都有体现。问题根源主要来自政府部门及相关主体存在的“路径依赖”“重管理、轻服务”“一刀切”等倾向。结论 需从体制机制上完善农田建设管理政策,让高标准农田项目建设更高效,为保障粮食安全发挥更大作用。     

The effectiveness of the protection of riparian landscapes in Israel

Riparian landscapes are natural habitats of unique ecological, environmental and scenic values, which are highly sensitive to human intervention and impact. Yet, due to their qualities, and especially the presence of water, they are also usually attractive for recreation purposes. This is more so in arid and semi-arid zones like Israel. Nevertheless, in the past, the importance of riparian landscapes in Israel did not receive adequate attention in policy and planning. As a result, over the years they were exposed to various negative impacts, including pollution by industrial and agricultural effluents, diversion of water for agricultural and other purposes, and land use conflicts. Although in recent years, with the growing awareness of their ecological and recreational potential, considerable efforts are being invested in the rehabilitation of deteriorated riparian landscapes, their protection is still deficient.This article reviews and examines policy tools used for the protection of riparian landscapes in Israel, focusing on legislation, institutional structure and physical planning as they emerge from relevant laws, reports and literature. It reveals, among others, gaps and deficiencies in legislation, institutional dualities along with split authorities both expressing a particularistic approach, and, until recently, lack of relevant designated planning. The article concludes by offering some suggestions for improving the protection of riparian landscapes in Israel, including: integration of existing laws based on a whole watershed approach; reorganization of institutional structure to facilitate a national vision of riparian landscapes rather than the existing particularistic approach; formulation of structured planning procedures to ensure the realization of designated national plans; and promotion of awareness to riparian values at various levels.     

Environmental policy integration: Towards a communicative approach in integrating nature conservation and urban planning in Bulgaria

As urban areas continue to expand, the need to consider nature conservation objectives in planning is growing. Policy makers across Europe recognize that effective nature conservation requires an integrated approach to land use planning that includes relevant ecological and spatial knowledge. Although a number of such integrated approaches have been developed, many local authorities in Europe encounter important institutional barriers to this integration. This is particularly true for countries in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) like Bulgaria. The post-socialist transformation in Bulgaria led to intensified urban growth and local authorities struggle to find a balance between environmental and socio-economic interests. Meanwhile, the Environmental Policy Integration ‘principle’ (EPI) has been gaining prominence in Europe, aiming to address the trade-offs between environmental and economic incentives. Research highlights that successful EPI depends on institutional processes within different economic sectors and across governmental scales. These processes have not yet been comprehensively studied in the CEE and in Bulgaria. This article assesses the EPI process in urban planning in Bulgaria and identifies the institutional approaches that may contribute best to EPI in urban planning. Using the example of the “Corner Land” project in the city of Burgas, we discuss the key challenges that the local authorities face in addressing nature conservation in land use plans. The findings indicate that EPI is to a high degree constrained by the lack of an efficient communicative process across fragmented organizational structures throughout the entire planning process. While a procedural approach to EPI appears to be prevalent it is concluded that a communicative approach is urgently needed if the sustainability of urban plans is to be safeguarded and negative impacts on nature prevented.     

国家矿产资源政策的目标与作用

国家的矿产资源政策其根本目的是保证矿业为社会经济发展提供足够的矿产资源,并促进一国矿业在国际市场上具有竞争力和矿业的可持续发展。国家矿产资源政策的主要功能是为矿业、政府部门、管理者,更重要的是给法律起草人和法律制定者提供指导;对矿业中出现的各种利益矛盾进行调节和控制;表明利益分配关系,在政府、企业和私人之间达成一致的意见。在分析国家矿产资源政策的目标和任务,以及影响制定政策的主要因素的同时,探讨制定这项政策涉及的问题及政策的管理作用。