中国货币政策目标制的选择——基于开放经济体的实证

本文使用开放经济下的新凯恩斯模型实证分析了开放经济体中不同的货币政策目标制。结果表明,面对国内利率政策、技术、国外通货膨胀、国外产出和国外实际利率冲击时,由灵活通货膨胀目标、资本自由流动和完全浮动的汇率构成的货币政策目标体系能够有效吸收冲击,减缓经济波动。相比而言,严格通胀目标制无法有效吸收国内外冲击,所以我国在开放经济下选择货币政策目标时,并不一定要选择严格通货膨胀目标,可以选择一些灵活通货膨胀目标的政策框架。此外,能够有效吸收各种冲击的灵活通胀目标、资本自由流动和完全浮动汇率制组成的目标体系也为我国货币政策和汇率制度改革提供了方向。     

新凯因斯DSGE模型与货币政策法则之汇率动态分析

对于小型开放经济而言,当经济存在价格僵硬的情况下,中央银行在面对不同冲击发生时,各政策法则执行对汇率波动的影响及动态调整过程差异较大。从中国台湾地区的情况为案例来看,在稳定汇率波动方面:当国内技术冲击时,货币法则优于利率法则;当国外通货膨胀时,利率法则优于货币法则;当国外利率冲击时,执行利率法则或货币法则,其结果无显著差异。在汇率动态调整方面:当国外利率调升时,中央银行执行利率法则与货币法则下,汇率的瞬时反应为过度贬值;当国外物价膨胀时,执行利率法则与货币法则下,汇率的瞬时反应表现为立即升值;当国内技术进步冲击时,因为国外冲击对小型开放经济体系影响力道较强,使得国内技术进度对体系的影响相对较小,其中在利率法则下,汇率微幅贬值,而在货币法则下,汇率微幅升值。     

External shocks, U.S. monetary policy and macroeconomic fluctuations in emerging markets

Estimated structural VARs show that external shocks are an important source of macroeconomic fluctuations in emerging markets. Furthermore, U.S. monetary policy shocks affect interest rates and the exchange rate in a typical emerging market quickly and strongly. The price level and real output in a typical emerging market respond to U.S. monetary policy shocks by more than the price level and real output in the U.S. itself. These findings are consistent with the idea that “when the U.S. sneezes, emerging markets catch a cold.” At the same time, U.S. monetary policy shocks are not important for emerging markets relative to other kinds of external shocks.     

Monetary policy,exchange rates and stock prices in the Middle East region

A structural vector autoregressive model is employed to investigate the impact of monetary policy and real exchange rate shocks on the stock market performance of Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Jordan. In order to identify the structural shocks both short run and long run restrictions are applied. Unlike previous literature the contemporaneous interdependence between the financial variables is left unrestricted to give a more accurate depiction of the relationships. The heterogeneity of the results reflects the different monetary policy frameworks and stock market characteristics of these countries. Mainly, monetary policy and the real exchange rate shocks have a significant short run impact on the stock prices of the countries that apply a relatively more independent monetary policy and flexible exchange rates.     

贸易摩擦、宏观经济波动与经济开放程度的选择

本文构建一个包含关税冲击以及外汇风险溢价的两国开放经济DSGE模型,创新地揭示了关税冲击造成实际汇率波动的“直接效应”与“间接效应”,刻画了关税变动、贸易条件与实际汇率之间的动态关系与作用机制。我们深入分析了不同经济开放程度下贸易摩擦造成的宏观经济波动以及经济福利损失。模拟结果表明,在一定贸易开放程度下,外国加收关税一方面会导致本国贸易条件恶化,引发出口及产出下降;另一方面会导致本国汇率贬值,引发出口及产出增长。关税冲击发生后短期中汇率贬值效应占优,本国产出会出现小幅上升,随后贸易条件恶化效应逐步显现,产出持续下降。福利分析结果表明,本国适度提升贸易开放度,虽然经济福利损失会小幅上升,但福利损失增加幅度小于外国,会在贸易摩擦竞争中形成相对优势;如果本国过度提高贸易开放度,则会导致本国福利损失大幅增加,并且大于外国福利损失增幅,会在贸易摩擦竞争中形成相对劣势。因此,应适度逐步有序地提升贸易开放度。此外,本国适度推进资本账户开放的政策能够改善贸易条件,促进本国经济增长。     

贸易摩擦、宏观经济波动与经济开放程度的选择

本文构建一个包含关税冲击以及外汇风险溢价的两国开放经济DSGE模型,创新地揭示了关税冲击造成实际汇率波动的“直接效应”与“间接效应”,刻画了关税变动、贸易条件与实际汇率之间的动态关系与作用机制。我们深入分析了不同经济开放程度下贸易摩擦造成的宏观经济波动以及经济福利损失。模拟结果表明,在一定贸易开放程度下,外国加收关税一方面会导致本国贸易条件恶化,引发出口及产出下降;另一方面会导致本国汇率贬值,引发出口及产出增长。关税冲击发生后短期中汇率贬值效应占优,本国产出会出现小幅上升,随后贸易条件恶化效应逐步显现,产出持续下降。福利分析结果表明,本国适度提升贸易开放度,虽然经济福利损失会小幅上升,但福利损失增加幅度小于外国,会在贸易摩擦竞争中形成相对优势;如果本国过度提高贸易开放度,则会导致本国福利损失大幅增加,并且大于外国福利损失增幅,会在贸易摩擦竞争中形成相对劣势。因此,应适度逐步有序地提升贸易开放度。此外,本国适度推进资本账户开放的政策能够改善贸易条件,促进本国经济增长。     

全球金融周期、美国货币政策与“三元悖论”

全球金融周期存在的背景下“三元悖论”是否依然成立充满争议。本文通过构建包含银行与金融摩擦的两国DSGE模型,为考察全球金融周期的形成提供了理论依据。美国货币政策通过资本流动传导到外围国金融市场,使外围国信贷利率、银行风险承担以及杠杆率与美国银行趋同,形成全球金融周期。金融渠道的传导速度快于实体经济渠道导致外围国国内经济周期与金融周期相背离,外围国想要稳定经济就不得不与美国保持同向的政策利率变化,货币政策独立性将不再存在。随着全球经济一体化进程加速,估值效应的作用越来越明显,浮动汇率制度并不能隔离全球金融周期的影响也无法保证货币政策的独立性。在资本账户开放的情况下,外围国金融市场越不发达,受全球金融周期的影响越大,货币政策越不独立。     

Real effects of anticipated and unanticipated money: Some problems of estimation and hypothesis testing

The paper addresses two issues that arise in estimation and testing of the real effects of anticipated and unanticipated money. First it is shown that identification of the effects of unanticipated (or unperceived) monetary growth on real output is possible only if the a priori restriction is imposed that monetary growth does not depend on unanticipated (or unperceived) output. Second, the existing empirical work of Barro and others does not allow for three known channels through which money can affect real variables. These are (1) past and present anticipations of future monetary growth (the inflation tax channel), (2) expectations of monetary growth in a given period conditioned at various preceding dates (the Fischer-Phelps-Taylor effect) and (3) past and present revisions in forecasts of future monetary growth. The presence of the first of these would mean that alternative open-loop monetary growth rules have real effects. The presence of the other two implies that monetary feedback rules can have real effects. Omission of the first channel can lead to biased estimates of the effects of past anticipated monetary growth. Potentially serious observational equivalence problems are associated with the other two.     

Optimal monetary policy with the cost channel

In the standard new Keynesian framework, an optimizing policy maker does not face a trade-off between stabilizing the inflation rate and stabilizing the gap between actual output and output under flexible prices. An ad hoc, exogenous cost-push shock is typically added to the inflation equation to generate a meaningful policy problem. In this paper, we show that a cost-push shock arises endogenously when a cost channel for monetary policy is introduced into the new Keynesian model. A cost channel is present when firms’ marginal cost depends directly on the nominal rate of interest. Besides providing empirical evidence for a cost channel, we explore its implications for optimal monetary policy. We show that its presence alters the optimal policy problem in important ways. For example, both the output gap and inflation are allowed to fluctuate in response to productivity and demand shocks under optimal monetary policy.     

World food prices and monetary policy

How should monetary policy respond to large fluctuations in world food prices? We study this question in an open economy model in which imported food has a larger weight in domestic consumption than abroad and international risk sharing can be imperfect. A key novelty is that the real exchange rate and the terms of trade can move in opposite directions in response to world food price shocks. This exacerbates the policy trade-off between stabilizing output prices vis a vis the real exchange rate, to an extent that depends on risk sharing and the price elasticity of exports. We characterize implications for dynamics, optimal monetary policy, and the relative performance of practical monetary rules. While CPI targeting and expected CPI targeting can dominate PPI targeting if international risk sharing is perfect, even seemingly mild departures from the latter make PPI targeting a winner.     

Real exchange rate persistence and monetary policy rules

The objective of this paper is to analyze the effects of alternative monetary rules on real exchange rate persistence. Using a two-country stochastic dynamic general equilibrium with nominal price stickiness and local currency pricing, we will show how the persistence of purchasing power parity deviations can be related to a monetary theory of these deviations. When monetary policy lean against the wind, there is no relationship of proportionality between the time during which prices remain sticky and the persistence of the response of the real exchange rate: in this case high nominal price rigidity is not sufficient, per se, in generating any persistence following a monetary shock. Moreover, we emphasize the role of interest rates smoothing policies and relative price stickiness within countries in understanding the relationship between the real exchange rate and monetary shocks. With reasonable parameters values, a wide range of monetary policy rules can generate real exchange rate autocorrelations around the ones observed in the data.     

耐用品、投资专有冲击与货币政策福利

本文构建蕴含耐用品与非耐用品的两部门DSGE模型,研究投资专有冲击对货币政策及社会福利的影响。投资专有技术进步改进了投资转化为生产资本的效率,放大边际成本波动,增加了厂商调价动机和价格水平变动。即使耐用品价格完全灵活,最优货币政策也无法同时稳定价格和实际GDP。研究发现:(1)耐用品相对价格缺口波动率的上升虽然增加了实际GDP波动,但能够有效地降低投资专有技术对边际成本的冲击,减少价格变动的福利损失。所以两部门投资专有冲击时,央行倾向于稳定价格水平。与其相反,在单部门投资专有冲击和两部门生产技术冲击时,最优货币政策应降低耐用品相对价格缺口波动,稳定实际GDP。(2)对比三种泰勒规则:钉住非耐用品PPI、钉住加权平均PPI及钉住CPI,福利分析发现钉住非耐用品PPI最优,钉住CPI次之,钉住加权平均PPI的福利损失最大。就损失程度而言,投资专有冲击的福利损失是生产技术冲击的2倍,表明投资专有冲击加剧了最优货币政策在稳定价格与实际GDP间的权衡。     

Distributional dynamics under smoothly state-dependent pricing

Starting from the assumption that firms are more likely to adjust their prices when doing so is more valuable, this paper analyzes monetary policy shocks in a DSGE model with firm-level heterogeneity. The model is calibrated to retail price microdata, and inflation responses are decomposed into “intensive”, “extensive”, and “selection” margins. Money growth and Taylor rule shocks both have nontrivial real effects, because the low state dependence implied by the data rules out the strong selection effect associated with fixed menu costs. The response to sector-specific shocks is gradual, but inappropriate econometrics might make it appear immediate.     

Mussa redux and conditional PPP

The extreme persistence of real exchange rates found commonly in post-Bretton Woods data does not hold in the preceding fixed exchange rate period, when the half-life was roughly half as large in our sample. This finding supports sticky price models as an explanation for real exchange rate behavior, extending the classic argument of Mussa (1986) from a focus on short-run volatility to long-run dynamics. Two thirds of the rise in real exchange rate variance observed across exchange rate regimes is attributable to greater persistence of responses to shocks, including greater price stickiness, rather than to greater variance of shocks themselves.     

Sources of exchange rate fluctuations: Are they real or nominal?

I analyze the role of real and monetary shocks on exchange rate behavior using a structural vector autoregressive model of the US vis-à-vis the rest of the world. The shocks are identified using sign restrictions on the responses of the variables to orthogonal disturbances. These restrictions are derived from the predictions of a two-country DSGE model. I find that monetary shocks are unimportant in explaining exchange rate fluctuations. By contrast, demand shocks explain between 21% and 37% of exchange rate variance at 4-quarter and 20-quarter horizons, respectively. The contribution of demand shocks plays an important role but not of the order of magnitude sometimes found in earlier studies. My results, however, support the recent focus of the literature on real shocks to match the empirical properties of real exchange rates.     

Economic Policy and the Great Depression in a Small Open Economy

We use a standard New Keynesian model of a small open economy, extended to include a government sector, to investigate the Great Depression in Australia. A calibrated model with a fixed exchange rate regime, similar to the gold standard, does well in replicating the dynamics of output during the interwar period. We then ask to what extent shocks to the economy would have been moderated by adopting modern‐day policies. We find that if policymakers had adopted a flexible exchange rate with a Taylor rule policy that output fluctuations during the Great Depression would have been moderated by up to 25%. Changes in government fiscal policy would also have moderated output fluctuations, but by a slightly smaller amount. Overall, we find that improved policy could have reduced output fluctuations by almost 50%.     

Dissecting Real Exchange Rate Fluctuations in China

This article uses a structural VAR model to investigate the sources of real exchange rate fluctuations in China over the period 1995Q1–2015Q4, taking into account five different types of macroeconomic shocks including technology, government spending, monetary policy, foreign demand, and risk premium shocks. These shocks are identified using sign restrictions derived from predictions of an open economy general equilibrium model calibrated to China’s economy. We find that foreign demand shocks are the most important driving force of China’s real exchange rate, which explains approximately 20% to 40% of the variance in 20 quarters. It is in line with the findings in the literature which show real demand shocks are the key contributor to fluctuations in the real exchange rate. Nominal shocks such as monetary policy shocks and risk premium shocks play relatively important roles at the short-term horizons, but their effects decay rapidly.     

Home bias,exchange rate disconnect,and optimal exchange rate policy

This paper examines how much the central bank should adjust the interest rate in response to real exchange rate fluctuations. The paper first demonstrates, in a two-country Dynamic Stochastic General Equilibrium (DSGE) model, that home bias in consumption is important to replicate the exchange rate volatility and exchange rate disconnect documented in the data. When home bias is high, the shock to Uncovered Interest rate Parity (UIP) can substantially drive up exchange rate volatility while leaving the volatility of real macroeconomic variables, such as GDP, almost untouched. The model predicts that the volatility of the real exchange rate relative to that of GDP increases with the extent of home bias. This relation is supported by the data. A second-order accurate solution method is employed to find the optimal operational monetary policy rule. Our model suggests that the monetary authority should not seek to vigorously stabilize exchange rate fluctuations. In particular, when the central bank does not take a strong stance against the inflation rate, exchange rate stabilization may induce substantial welfare loss. The model does not detect welfare gain from international monetary cooperation, which extends Obstfeld and Rogoff's [Obstfeld, M., Rogoff, K.,2002. Global implications of self-oriented national monetary rules, Quarterly Journal of Economics May, 503–535] findings to a DSGE model.     

Monetary shocks, the exchange rate, and the trade balance

This paper investigates the response of the exchange rate and the trade balance to monetary policy innovations for the US economy during the period 1973:01–1993:12. The empirical findings indicate that contractionary monetary policy shocks lead to transitory appreciations of the real and the nominal exchange rate. Exchange rate appreciations that are caused by a temporary contractionary shock to monetary policy are correlated with a short-lived improvement in the trade balance which is then followed by a deterioration, giving support to the J-curve hypothesis.     

不同目标制下的中国最优货币政策分析

在更灵活的汇率制度下,中国货币政策会对经济产生什么影响？通过建立一个统一的开放宏观经济模型,发现如果中央银行要实现开放经济下不同目标制的最优货币政策,浮动汇率制成为稳定国内经济,有效应对国内外冲击与实施独立和内向型货币政策的最优选择。