汇兑损益对企业的影响与外汇风险防范

2005年7月21日起,央行宣布实行以市场供求为基础、参考一篮子货币进行调节、有管理的浮动汇率制度。人民币汇率不再盯住单一美元,而是实行更富弹性的汇率制度。这一改革对进出口型企业如何规避汇率风险提出了新的挑战。本文主要论述汇兑损益对企业的影响以及企业如何防范外汇风险。一、汇兑损益对企业的影响汇兑损益是在企业持有外币货币性资产和负债期间,由于外币汇率变动而引起的外币货币性资产和负债的价值发生变动所产生的损益。企业在不同经营情况下,汇兑损益的实际影响也不同。从企业产品进出口所占比例的角度,可将企业分为三大类:第…     

关于银行外汇业务中“汇兑损益”的探讨

问题的起因我在参与对各专业银行外汇业务的检查时,发现了一个新问题,在人民币利润中包含的“汇兑损益”(或“外汇买卖损益”)中,大部分实际是外汇。按照国家的外汇管理规定,外汇的利润是要通过结汇上缴给国家的。因此,搞清楚“汇兑损益”中的外汇收入,就具有重要的意义。各专业银行经营外汇业务有一笔美元的自有资金,表示在“外汇营运资金”科目的贷方,外汇业务经营中的会计平衡关系为:     

汇兑损益探究

<正>一、汇兑损益的概念汇兑损益亦称汇兑差额,就是企业在发生外币交易、兑换业务和期末账户调整及外币报表换算时,由于采用不同货币或同一货币不同比价的汇率核算时产生的、按记账本位币折算的差额。按照折算差额产生的正差和负差,分为汇兑收益和汇兑损失。汇兑收益要计入收入总额,而汇兑损失除已经计入资产成本和向所有者进行利润分配的部分外,可以税前扣除。     

中外合营企业汇兑损益初探

涉外会计理论的研究,应该更好地服务于改革、开放形势下的涉外会计实践。在此,本文拟对中外合营企业汇兑损益的有关问题进行探讨。一、汇兑损益及其分类汇兑损益是指在外汇业务条件下,由于外汇兑换及外币帐项折算时的汇率,与已记帐的汇率之间的差异所引起的记帐货币单位数额的变动,而带来的损失或收益。可见,外汇业务的发生,外汇兑换及外币帐项折算的存在,是汇兑损益产生的前提条件,而汇率变动是产生汇兑损益的根本原因。这样,汇兑损益的形成,一是指外币的买卖,由于实际买卖的汇率与已登记入帐时的汇率不同而发生的记帐货币单位数额变动的差异;二是指已经收入的外币存款在使用时和已经发生的外币债权、债务在结算时,由于时间和汇率的不同而发生的记帐货     

利润贡献损益确定模式的逻辑基础及其建构——基于收入与费用配比逻辑的分析框架

收入与费用配比是财务会计损益确定的逻辑基础。根据这个逻辑审视现行会计实务中的收入和费用相配比状况,发现营业利润损益确定模式存在着收入与费用不尽完全相匹配的局限,导致企业营业利润波动幅度过大,难以反映企业基本经营活动产生的真实经营业绩,特别是难以将企业销售商品、提供劳务等基本经营活动所创造的利润真实合理地反映出来。为弥补现行营业利润损益确定模式存在的上述局限,遵循收入与费用配比的逻辑,本文提出并界定了营业净收入、收入动因成本和利润贡献三个新概念,进而建构能够体现收入与费用配比逻辑关系的以利润贡献为核心指标的损益确定模式。利润贡献损益确定模式将为企业基本经营活动的业绩评价提供了独特的视角,既是对企业经营业绩评价指标的丰富,也是对现行营业利润损益确定模式的改进和完善。本文对于收入、费用之间内在逻辑关系的探讨以及在此基础上构建的利润贡献损益确定模式对于企业经营绩效的评价模式或评价指标的改进具有一定的积极意义。     

浅谈企业外汇多种记账汇率的管理

企业会计制度中规定,企业发生外币业务可以选择交易发生日的汇率,也可以选择当期期初的汇率。由于外贸企业外币业务发生频繁,同时也考虑到简化工作,提高工作效率的要求,企业普遍选择交易发生当月月初的汇率作为核算汇率,并在会计期末以期末即期汇率来结转外币业务账户的汇兑损益。由于过去汇率变化不大,对企业会计核算影响很小。但自从汇改以来,人民币升值进程不断加速,对外贸企业的确是一个严峻的考验。     

财政部对外商投资企业若干会计处理问题的通知

财政部以(92)财会字第33号通知印发《中华人民共和国外商投资企业会计制度》和《外商投资工业企业会计科目和会计报表》后,为了便于更好地执行《中华人民共和国外商投资企业会计制度》(以下简称《制度》),财政部特以(92)财会字第37号通知将执行中若干具体会计处理问题,作如下通知: 一、关于汇兑损益 (一)企业按《制度》第六十二条规定于今年作第一次调整时,如果所产生的汇兑损益金额较大,可增设“待转销汇兑损益”科目进行核算,并从本年度起按不长于5年的期限分期平均摊销。以后每月终了按规定调整所产生的汇兑损益一律计入当期损益。     

再谈外汇汇率并轨损益的转销

再谈外汇汇率并轨损益的转销上海胜狮国际货柜有限公司薛建民《上海会计》１９９４年第１２期刊载了笔者《外汇汇率并轨损益转销之我见》一文。近读《上海会计》１９９５年第２期王祖绶《也谈“外商投资企业汇兑损益”的会计处理》一文，其实质也是探讨汇兑损益中１９９４...     

浅谈汇兑损益的会计处理

一、汇兑损益会计处理的两种观点 汇兑损益是外币兑换损益的简称。常见的汇兑损益的处理方法有两种不同的观点,即一笔业务观点和两笔业务观点。 1.一笔业务观点 这种观点认为,汇兑损益虽发生在债权或债务结算之时,但起因于产生债权或债务的实物交易业务,因而这些“损益”亦应“溯源”地归属于这些业务,而对原来的销售收入或购货支出的计价作相应的调整。例如,大隆公司12月15日向美商购进生产用元器     

股东和国家的作为

越简单的事情越复杂。同为会计前提与经济基础的货币计量,其丝毫改变都牵动着公司理财者的心,其中不仅包括变动渐久的汇率、今年以来连续上扬的利率,也包括刚刚启动的通胀率。比如,近年来的人民币升值,便使得中国A股上市公司2006年汇兑损益呈现冰火两种天的景象,再次验证了汇率与进出口贸易的关系,以及这过程中的传导效应。与其他上市公司不同,漳泽电力将汇兑损益计入非经常性损益项目,从而显得另类。当然,这种不合规的做法,也有其一定的合理之处,反映了公司具体情况不同和管理层理念等方面的差异。颠覆人们惯常思维的是,对于个别公司,巨额汇兑收益有时反而成为引发危机的导火索。东海公司就是一种典型,其近年来盈利能力和资金状况一直良好,然而,由于美元债务折算成人民币产生了巨额汇兑收益,增加了企业所得税和以现金形式发放的股东红利,使得扣除汇兑收益后的利润总额不足以弥补多增加的所得税和股东红利,进而产生严重资金短缺。对东海公司的汇兑收益之忧,仁者见人,智者见智,启示颇多。就外向型企业而言,不能只重视汇兑损失的规避,而忽视汇兑收益所导致的利润与现金流间的背离;化解类似汇兑收益导致的现金流危机,需要企业、股东、税务机关等多方共同作为;同时,其资金困局的更深层面涉及到我国在对外开放过程中的一些战略选择。面对凶猛的货币,先知先觉的企业理财者们早已果敢实践。大连远洋运输公司总会计师王才永便是与金融衍生品共舞的CFO们中的一员。自本世纪初始,王才永便注意到了金融衍生产品在规避利率、汇率风险,改善企业债务结构,降低资金成本中的作用,并进行了积极的研究和探索。他的信念是:"做财务工作不敢承担责任,就什么也做不了。"     

中国外汇储备损益与人民币汇率制度改革

本文在系统总结中国外汇储备损益研究视角的基础上,提出央行＂实际汇兑损益＂的崭新视角,并以此为切入点,研究了中国外汇储备损益与人民币汇率调整的关系问题。本文借助国家资产负债表构建了双顺差分析模型,并通过升值情景模拟分析,得出结论：在汇率制度改革过程中,既有的汇率错位和通常伴随的汇率超调往往导致了央行发生＂实际汇兑损益＂,损失量与兑换资金规模、汇率错位程度成比例,由此产生的汇兑损益可能导致对国家外汇储备的＂非对称分配＂。鉴于目前理论与实证研究不支持人民币被大幅低估的观点,货币当局应关注和避免因汇率错位及汇率超调产生的外汇储备汇兑损失;对于人民币的汇率调整应基于学理、结合实际,研究出一套准确客观的算法体系,以动态界定汇率合理区间;而从中长期考虑,需将汇率制度改革作为系统工程来推进。针对上述结论,本文提出四方面政策建议。     

Trade Openness and Exchange Rate Regimes

The paper evaluates the net welfare gains of inflation targeting over a fixed exchange rate as a function of a country's trade openness, using a multisectoral structural model calibrated to Chile. For most calibrations with separable preferences, net welfare gains are increasing in trade openness. The reason is that in more open economies terms of trade shocks, which favor inflation targeting, become quantitatively more important, while price markup shocks in the imperfectly competitive nontradables sector, which favor exchange rate targeting, become less important. The most important exception is heavily indebted countries, where net welfare gains are decreasing in trade openness.     

Financial Crises and Recapitalizations

We develop a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model with financial frictions on both financial intermediaries and goods‐producing firms. Since financial intermediaries are highly leveraged, we show that the welfare gains from their recapitalization in response to large but rare net worth losses are as large as those from eliminating typical business cycle fluctuations. We also find that these gains are increasing in the size of the net worth loss, are larger when recapitalization funds are raised from the household rather than the real sector, and can be larger when lower idiosyncratic risk leads to higher leverage.     

Usefulness of fair values for predicting banks’ future earnings: evidence from other comprehensive income and its components

This paper examines whether fair value adjustments included in other comprehensive income (OCI) predict future bank performance. It also examines whether the reliability of these estimates affects their predictive value. Using a sample of bank holding companies, we find that fair value adjustments included in OCI can predict earnings both 1 and 2 years ahead. However, not all fair value-related unrealized gains and losses included in OCI have similar implications. While net unrealized gains and losses on available-for-sale securities are positively associated with future earnings, net unrealized gains and losses on derivative contracts classified as cash flow hedges are negatively associated with future earnings. We also find that reliable measurement of fair values enhances predictive value. Finally, we show that fair value adjustments recorded in OCI during the 2007–2009 financial crisis predicted future profitability, contradicting criticism that fair value accounting forced banks to record excessive downward adjustments.     

Safety‐Net Losses from Abandoning Glass–Steagall Restrictions

This paper evaluates the redistribution of gains surrounding regulatory relaxations in 1996 and 1997 and ultimate passage of the Financial Services Modernization Act (FSMA) of 1999. Gains in financial institution stocks may come from projected increases in efficiency, increases in the bargaining power of financial institutions, or greater access to the federal safety net. For customers seeking improved access to capital markets, gains in efficiency should result in increased benefits, but increases in bank bargaining power could increase funding costs and/or decrease capital market access. Customers may also lose as taxpayers who support the federal safety net. This paper finds evidence of potential taxpayer losses and increased bank bargaining power, especially vis‐à‐vis credit‐constrained customers for whom safety‐net subsidies are unlikely to be shifted forward. The stock prices of credit‐constrained customers declined during FSMA event windows and in event windows associated with regulatory relaxations.     

Undervaluation through foreign reserve accumulation: Static losses,dynamic gains,

This paper analyzes foreign reserve accumulation as a second-best policy in economies with learning-by-investing externalities that arise disproportionately from the tradable sector. Under closed capital accounts, reserve accumulation requires an increase in net exports, which reduces the domestic supply of tradable goods, raises their relative price in terms of non-tradable goods – i.e. undervalues the real exchange rate – and stimulates the production of tradable goods. The cost of such a policy is to reduce domestic tradable absorption. However, since the tradable sector generates learning-by-investing externalities, it leads to dynamic gains. Reserve accumulation always increases growth in our framework, but the net welfare effects depend on the balance between the static losses from lower tradable absorption and the dynamic gains from higher growth. We capture this trade-off in a simple analytic formula and depict it in an intuitive graph. We also discuss alternative policy options to reserve accumulation that serve to internalize learning-by-investing externalities.     

ACCOUNTING POLICIES FOR EXCHANGE GAINS AND LOSSES ON LONG-TERM MONETARY ITEMS

Accounting standards and exposure drafts on foreign currency translation have differed in their recommended treatment of unrealised exchange gains and losses on long-term monetary assets and liabilities of domestic firms denominated in foreign currencies. This paper compares the immediate recognition method (U.S. and U.K.) to the defer and amortise method (Australia and Canada) with respect to their effects on net income, asset and liability measurement. Reasons why management will be concerned with the financial statement effect of exchange rate changes are advanced and these, together with the empirical analysis of the competing accounting methods, help explain the evident support the Australian corporate sector has shown for the defer and amortise method.     

Foreign portfolio equity holdings and capital gains taxation

Using panel data from 23 developed countries over the 2001–2011 period and employing the Arellano-Bover/Blundell-Bond dynamic panel estimation technique, this paper shows that the source country capital gains tax has a negative and statistically significant impact on foreign portfolio equity holdings. On average, a 1 percentage point increase in capital gains tax rate leads to 0.018% decrease in foreign equity holdings. The negative relationship between the capital gains tax and foreign equity holdings is found to be robust to alternative measures of the source country capital gains tax, inclusion of the dividend imputation tax rate, foreign dividend tax withheld rate, dividend tax credit and other control variables (the source and host country financial wealth, trade, exchange rate volatility, foreign listing and institutional quality). We find that a 1% increase in financial wealth of the source (host) country leads to, on average, a 0.428% (0.427%) increase in foreign equity holdings. An improvement in institutional quality has a positive effect on foreign equity holdings but an increase in the exchange rate volatility has the opposite effect.     

货币错配与经济金融稳定:亚太经验比较分析

中国的汇率制度改革使得在盯住汇率制度下积聚的巨大货币错配风险逐渐暴露出来.货币错配是否会影响经济金融稳定,本文通过对亚洲金融危机、日本经济衰退以及本世纪以来亚洲新兴市场国家的累积的新风险进行梳理、比较与分析,得出净外币负债型货币错配与净外币资产型货币错配在一定的条件下都会影响经济金融稳定.     

Preserving amortized costs within a fair-value-accounting framework: reclassification of gains and losses on available-for-sale securities upon realization

SFAS No. 115 requires firms to recognize available-for-sale (AFS) securities at fair value with accumulated unrealized gains and losses (AUGL) recorded in accumulated other comprehensive income. Firms reclassify AUGL to net income when they realize gains and losses. We refer to the amount reclassified each period by “RECLASS.” As of 1998, SFAS No. 130 requires firms to present RECLASS prominently in their financial statements. We investigate the incremental explanatory power of RECLASS for banks’ market values and market-adjusted returns. In the market value analysis, we control for AUGL, other components of book value of equity, net income before extraordinary items and RECLASS (NIBEX^other), and other components of comprehensive income. In the returns analysis, we control for ΔAUGL, ΔNIBEX^other, and extraordinary items. We find high positive coefficients on RECLASS in both analyses, consistent with investors pricing RECLASS as a relatively permanent component of net income. Exploring possible explanations for these pricing implications, we find no evidence that they are attributable to RECLASS remedying unreliable fair value measurement of AUGL. We provide three distinct analyses indicating that RECLASS’s pricing implications are explained in significant part by it helping investors predict banks’ future performance. Our results illustrate that an important type of amortized cost accounting information, realized gains and losses, remains highly useful to investors despite the overall fair-value-accounting framework for AFS securities.