Who Says There is an Intention–Behaviour Gap? Assessing the Empirical Evidence of an Intention–Behaviour Gap in Ethical Consumption

The theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour (TRA/TPB) have fundamentally changed the view that attitudes directly translate into behaviour by introducing intentions as a crucial intervening stage. Much research across numerous ethical contexts has drawn on these theories to offer a better understanding of how consumers form intentions to act in an ethical way. Persistently, researchers have suggested and discussed the existence of an intention–behaviour gap in ethical consumption. Yet, the factors that influence the extent of this gap and its magnitude have not been systematically examined. We, therefore, contribute to the debate on the intention–behaviour gap by reviewing the empirical TRA/TPB studies that have assessed both intention and behaviour in ethical contexts. The findings from our review show that few studies assessed the intention–behaviour relationship and as a result, there is limited empirical evidence to date to quantify more accurately the intention–behaviour gap in ethical consumption. Our second contribution aims to provide an empirical case study which assesses the magnitude of the intention–behaviour gap in the context of avoidance of sweatshop clothing and to assess the roles of planning and actual behavioural control in potentially reducing the intention–behaviour gap. The findings of our case study suggest that there is indeed a large gap between intention and behaviour, and we conclude by calling for more empirical longitudinal studies to assess the complex nature of the relationship between intention and behaviour.     

Chinese dietary culture influences consumers' intention to use imported soy‐based dietary supplements: an application of the theory of planned behaviour

The over‐saturated dietary supplement (DS) market in developed countries such as the US spurs the need for foreign market expansion, and the Chinese market provides a great potential for the foreign soy‐based DS industry. This study examined Chinese consumers' intention to use imported (US‐made US‐brand) soy‐based DS based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Two alternative models were also examined in which Chinese dietary culture variables, including soyfoods favourability and dining‐out sociability, as well as their interactions with attitudes, were integrated into the TPB model. A cross‐sectional, self‐administered survey was conducted with a sample of 215 subjects (137 females; 78 males) in Shanghai, China. The TPB variables attitude, subjective norm, perceived behaviour control and behavioural intention, as well as the Chinese dietary culture variables: soyfoods favourability and dine‐out sociability were measured. Multiple linear regressions were used to analyze the three models. The statistical results indicated that all three models were statistically significant to predict intention (Model 1: R² = 0.473, P < 0.001; Model 2: R² = 0.505, P < 0.001; Model 3: R² = 0.525, P < 0.001). The results also showed that attitude, perceived behavioural control, and dine‐out sociability were significant (positive) determinants of intention. Soyfoods favourability acted a significant (negative) moderator of the relationship between attitude and intention. Subjective norm had no significant impact on intention. In conclusion, the TPB model was useful to predict Chinese consumers' intention to use imported soy‐based DS, but not all the TPB components weighed significantly in exploring DS consumption in China. The selected Chinese dietary culture variables were much more important predictors than subjective norm. This study makes a significant contribution in the application of the TPB model and in market strategy development for imported dietary supplements in China.     

The role of food eating values and exploratory behaviour traits in predicting intention to consume organic foods: An extended planned behaviour approach

The extant literature on predicting organic food choice as a consumption behaviour has overlooked the role of food eating values (utilitarian and hedonic values) and individuals exploratory buying behavioural traits (exploratory information seeking and exploratory acquisition seeking). The novelty of the study is the use of food eating values and individuals exploratory buying behaviour traits as an extension to the theory of planned behaviour in predicting attitude and intentions towards organic food consumption with a representative sample of N = 431. Data was collected in two phases. In the first phase, a small qualitative face to face (semi structured) interviews were held from 22 respondents to elicit the utilitarian and hedonic values individuals attach with the organic food consumption. This is followed by the collection of survey data from two Indian metropolitan cities (New Delhi and Chennai) using a mall intercept method from the individuals visiting hypermarkets and supermarkets. The hypotheses were tested using structural equations modelling or SEM in IBM AMOS 24. Attitude to consume organic foods was found to be most dominant in predicting behavioural intention in both basic and the extended TPB model followed by subjective norms. Perceived behavioural control was found to be a significant predictor only in the extended TPB model, suggesting a dual role. Findings also suggested that utilitarian values are more influential than hedonic values in the formation of attitudes towards organic foods.Further, the exploratory information seeking traits are found to strengthen the relationship between a) perceived behavioural control and behavioural intention to consume organic foods and b) attitude to consume organic foods and behavioural intention to consume organic foods whereas exploratory acquisition seeking traits to be strengthening the relationship between attitude and behavioural intentions only. Implications for the policy makers is discussed towards the end of the study.     

Social media adoption behaviour: Consumer innovativeness and participation intention

With the emergence of social media, the trends of selfies have become common across various social networking platforms as a distinctive way of self-presentation. It has aroused the interest of various scholars to comprehend the consumer adoption behaviour for social media. Thus, built on the innovation diffusion theory (IDT) and theory of planned behaviour (TPB) perspective, this paper developed a model to empirically test whether and how critical factors of consumer selfie-posting behavioural intention on social media affect behavioural intention and word-of-mouth to consequently enhancing their adoption behaviour towards social media to post selfies. The data were gathered from 353 young consumers who post their selfies clicked via smartphone on their social media accounts. The results revealed that consumer innovativeness and participation intention directly and indirectly affect consumer adoption behaviour for social media to post their selfies. Additionally, the study identified that among all critical factors, participation intention and perceived behaviour control have strongest influence on behavioural intention to post selfies followed by consumer innovativeness, attitude towards selfie-posting and subjective norms. The study contributes to the extension of TPB by adding participation intention and positive WOM, adoption of social media. This research validated the significant roles of consumer innovativeness, participation intention, positive WOM and intention to post selfies in predicting the adoption behaviour. Practitioners and marketers of social media sites can improve the usability and effectiveness of positive WOM and intention to post selfies to attract more young consumers.     

Extending the Theory of Planned Behavior to examine the role of anticipated negative emotions on channel intention: The case of an embarrassing product

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is successful in predicting consumer intentions for a wide variety of products and behaviors. However, little is known about how effective the TPB is when the behavior under study is embarrassing. To this end, this paper extends the TPB to create a conceptual model to examine the role of anticipated negative emotions on channel intention. An empirical study was conducted whereby the model was tested using survey data on the purchase of Regaine (a hair loss product that is embarrassing to buy) in Boots (a well-known UK multichannel drugstore). The embarrassing nature of Regaine created differences in the importance that emotions played when consumers intend to purchase using face-to-face channels (such as the physical drugstore) as against multichannel options or the internet. The results were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). The effectiveness of the TPB was improved. The variance explained (R² to intention) was 0.44% for the total sample, 49% for the drugstore, 58.4% for the internet, and 42.5% for multichannel.     

Comparing the temporal stability of behavioural expectation and behavioural intention in the prediction of consumers pro-environmental behaviour

Pro-environmental behaviour is a salient concern in contemporary society. However, consumers often overstate their intention to purchase pro-environment products. Prior research has focused on intentions as a predictor of actual behaviour. This study directly compares two distinct predictors of behaviour, behavioural expectation (BE) and behavioural intention (BI), to explain whether differences in the way in which consumers’ mental judgments are measured act as a barrier to understanding pro-environmental behaviour change. Findings confirm that BE has a higher temporal stability than BI, potentially accounting for the greater predictive ability of the former. One key reason for this finding is that subjects may overestimate their likelihood to act when responding to BI questions. Thus, this paper confirms that BE has a higher temporal stability than BI, and therefore, superior predictive ability. TRA/TPB researchers in particular should consider BE ahead of BI as an immediate predictor of pro-environmental and other behaviours.     

Determinants of customers’ intentions towards environmentally sustainable banking: Testing the structural model

The increasing urbanization and changing consumption patterns are putting great strain on environmental sustainability. The consumption patterns need to be reformed due to the great contribution to rising carbon emissions. The customers are also becoming aware of the various environmental issues. The current research developed and tested a conceptual framework to scrutinize the antecedents of customers' intentions to adopt environmentally sustainable banking services and activities. Following the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), this paper incorporated the constructs namely trust, environmental consciousness, and perceived behavioural outcomes in addition to its basic variables. The data were gathered from a cross-sectional sample of 440 Indian bank customers using a survey method. PLS-based structural equation modelling technique was employed to test the research model. The results indicated that TPB constructs exert significant influence on customers’ behavioural intention. The environmental consciousness was marked as a highly significant predictor of perceived behavioural outcomes which in turn was found to be a significant determinant of trust as well as behavioural intention. Moreover, the attitude was found to be a significant outcome of trust and environmental consciousness. This research puts forth the theoretical as well as managerial implications and provides directions for further research in the concerned thrust area.     

Predicting green product consumption using theory of planned behavior and reasoned action

The extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) incorporates environmental concern, a critical variable in green marketing literature, intending to achieve triple bottom line (TBL). In this context, this study aims to validate TPB and its extended form (mediating role of TPB variables), as well as the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), to predict Indian consumers’ green product purchase intention. We collected primary data from 521 respondents as input, establishing validity through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Our empirical results of structural equation modeling (SEM) show that extended TPB has higher predictability than TPB and TRA in green marketing settings. Consumer attitude and perceived behavioral control significantly predicts purchase intention whereas subjective norm does not. Our findings also suggest that TPB mediates the relationship between environmental concern and green products purchase intention. An additional construct in the new model considerably contributes to improving the understanding of green products purchase intention formation and could become a sustainable mainstream variable.     

Following brands on Twitter: an extension of theory of planned behavior

Due to its immediacy and efficiency, Twitter has recently emerged as a form of marketing communication tool that offers unique advantages for two-way communication between marketers and consumers. This study examines brand-following behavior on Twitter using the Ajzen's model of theory of planned behavior (TPB). Results show that attitude toward brand following, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and brand attachment are positively associated with intention to follow brands on Twitter. Consumers’ intention to create (i.e., intention to tweet at brands) and disseminate (i.e., intention to retweet the links of brands) brand-related information, as well as purchase intention, are the outcomes of intention to follow brands on Twitter. Overall findings suggest that TPB model can be used to predict Twitter users’ brand-following behavior. More importantly, our finding that brand attachment drives consumer intention to follow brands on Twitter extends the TPB framework. This study provides both theoretical and managerial implications.     

Attitude toward and Consumption of Fish in Vietnam

This study uses theory of planned behaviour (TPB) as a conceptual framework to investigate the attitude and intention toward the consumption of fish in a cross-sectional survey of Vietnamese consumers. Structural equation modelling (SEM) is used to test the reliability, validity, and relationships in the proposed model. The results show that the variation in the frequency of fish consumption is significantly explained by intention and perceived behavioural control. Intention to consume fish is significantly determined by subjective norms and attitude toward consuming fish as a meal. Perceived behavioural control is significantly related to fish consumption, but not to the intention to consume fish, indicating that there may be a difference between perceived control and actual control. At the specific-belief level, the study found that negative affect, perceived quality, and price are significant indicators that explain 60% of the variation in attitude. Perceived price, time needed to cook and prepare fish as a meal, and the availability of fresh fish are important factors explaining 63% of the variation of the perceived control over fish consumption. The study also provides some managerial implications and suggestions for the seafood sector to expand the domestic markets and gives recommendations for future research.     

Game meats: Consumption values,theory of planned behaviour,and the moderating role of food neophobia/neophiliac behaviour

Game meat can be considered an alternative to traditional meats and is growing steadily. Previous literature has not investigated why consumers choose or buy game meats. The study draws on the theory of Consumer Choice Value and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). The moderating influence of food neophobia/neophiliac behaviour is also examined. The data was analysed using Structural Equation Modelling, cluster-analysis, and multigroup analysis. Regarding consumer's choice value, epistemic and social value were found significant. TPB shows that perceived behavioural control was non-significant and to some extent, consumers with food neophobia/neophiliac behaviour moderated the purchase behaviour. Consumer's perceived well-being mediates the relationship between intention and purchase behaviour. It contributes to the breadth of the current theoretical-framework and provides useful insights for retailers and researchers.     

Veganism: Theory of planned behaviour,ethical concerns and the moderating role of catalytic experiences

The growing movement of veganism culture is drawing increasing scientific attention but falls short of an empirical investigation to examine antecedents and catalytic experiences for maintaining vegan diets. An integrated theoretical framework is proposed using the Theory of Planned Behaviour Model (TPB) and includes ethical concerns to investigate the interrelationships. Comparisons are also made by adopting the strength of high and low ethical catalytic experiences of each consumer group to identify moderating results. The proposed conceptual model was tested using Structural Equation Modelling from the responses of 478 vegan consumers. Results indicate that the TPB factors exert positive effects on the buying intention and ethical concerns mediate the relationship between attitudes and intention, as well as between PBC and intention, however, social norms did not impact ethical concerns.While consumers experiencing high catalytic experience had no significance, low catalytic experience consumers showed an inverse significant moderating relationship on PBC and maintaining vegan diets. Whereas the relationship for ethical concerns influencing the intention to buy vegan foods was significant and positive for the high catalytic experienced consumer, but not significant for the low catalytic experienced consumer. The moderating results for social norms were not significant on ethical concerns for the high catalytic experienced consumer but were negatively significant for the low catalytic experienced consumers indicating that the effect of peer pressure increase, results in a decline for ethical considerations.These findings offer strong theoretical and practical implications by contributing to the understanding of consumers’ behavioural intention to undertake vegan diets and extending our knowledge for formulating retail strategies to effectively tailor their offerings for this consumer segment.     

The Cosmopolitical Corporation

Moral issues have been included in the studies of consumer misbehavior research, but little is known about the joint moderating effect of moral intensity and moral judgment on the consumer’s use intention of pirated software. This study aims to understand the consumer’s use intention of pirated software in Taiwan based on the theory of planned behavior (TPB) proposed by Ajzen (Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179, 1991). In addition, moral intensity and moral judgment are adopted as a joint moderator to examine their combined influence on the proposed research framework. The results obtained from this Taiwan case reveal that the antecedent constructs proposed in the TPB model–an individual’s attitude and subjective norms toward using pirated software, and perceived behavioral control to use pirated software–indeed have positive impacts on the consumer’s use intention of pirated software. In addition, the joint moderating effect of moral intensity and moral judgment is manifested in the consumer’s use intention of pirated software. The results of this study not only could substantiate the results of consumer misbehavior research, but also could provide some managerial suggestions for Taiwanese government authorities concerned and the related software industries devoted to fighting pirated software.     

Empirical study of destination loyalty and its antecedent: the perspective of place attachment

Due to the increasing competition in the leisure and tourism market, loyalty-related studies and researches have been gaining attention. This empirical research explores the formation of destination loyalty from the interaction of visitors with hot-spring resorts (place attachment) and examines the relationship between such a loyalty and its antecedents. Based on an attitude framework, this study conceptualizes place dependence, place identity, and behavioural intention as the tripartite framework of destination loyalty. Using the covariance structure analysis, empirical results indicated that the service quality–satisfaction–loyalty model is supported and tourist satisfaction completely mediates the effect of service quality on place dependence, place identity, and behavioural intention.     

Factors affecting consumers’ intention towards purchasing halal food in South Africa: a structural equation modelling

This research study highlighted the factors that influence the intention of consumers to buy halal food products. In this study, the researchers have chosen to address the gap in the literature pertaining to non-South African consumers’ purchase intention. Non-South Africans are foreign people who reside in South Africa including immigrants, workers, and students. Through utilising the theory of planned behaviour, this study aims to determine the attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behaviour control, and awareness of non-South African towards purchasing halal food products. This also attempts to identify the strongest factor that influences the purchasing intention of halal food by non-South African consumers. The sample of the study consisted of 230 non-South African consumers in Cape Town. Data were collected through self-administered questionnaires. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to identify the structural relationships among the constructs identified and to test the study hypotheses. The findings of this study indicate that there is a significant relationship between awareness and buying behaviour. Interestingly it found that only the attitude dimension of TPB had a significant relationship with purchase intention, whereas subjective norms and perceived behavioural control did not show a significant relationship with the consumer intention variable.     

Predicting the Use of Pirated Software: A Contingency Model Integrating Perceived Risk with the Theory of Planned Behavior

As software piracy continues to be a threat to the growth of national and global economies, understanding why people continue to use pirated software and learning how to discourage the use of pirated software are urgent and important issues. In addition to applying the theory of planned behavior (TPB) perspective to capture behavioral intention to use pirated software, this paper considers perceived risk as a salient belief influencing attitude and intention toward using pirated software. Four perceived risk components related to the use of pirated software (performance, social, prosecution and psychological risks) have been identified, measured and tested. Data were collected through an online survey of 305 participants. The results indicate that perceived prosecution risk has an impact on intention to use pirated software, and perceived psychological risk is a strong predictor of attitude toward using pirated software. In addition, attitude and perceived behavior control contribute significantly to the intended use of pirated software. However, the proposed direct relationship between subjective norm and intention to use pirated software is not supported. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Smoking Behavior,Information Sources,and Consumption Values of Teenagers: Implications for Public Policy and Other Intervention Failures

This paper uses a hierarchical decision process model, uses of information, and a theory of consumption values as a strategic framework for evaluating the general failure of intervention strategies for teenage smoking initiation. Extremely high smoking consideration-to-trial rates and rapid cessation by occasional smokers provide narrow but unused strategic opportunities for intervention. Use of information sources varies by stage of model with interpersonal sources dominating consideration, trial, and cessation stages and mass media showing only a slightly increasing use in cessation compared to the earlier stages. The decision process model and consumption values are necessary for planning strategic interventions. Existing intervention programs are not appropriately targeted in the decision process. Programs should be developed to reduce the smoking consideration to trial rates in younger children and to encourage rapid cessation in older teenagers. The use of either print or broadcast mass media intervention programs is not supported.     

Examining the role of receptivity to green communication,altruism and openness to change on young consumers’ intention to purchase green apparel: A multi-analytical approach

The current study aims to examine the impact of receptivity to green communication, altruism and openness to change on young consumers' purchase intention towards green apparel in India. Using a two stage approach, the research model is assessed with data collected through an online survey from a sample of 549 young consumers. In the first step, structural equation modeling (SEM) is used to determine the linear relationship among factors in the theoretical model. In the second step, artificial neural network (ANN) analysis is used to determine the predictive accuracy of the significant factors obtained from the SEM. The results from the SEM analysis reveal that receptivity to green communication, altruism and openness to change, along with the three predictors of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) significantly affect consumers’ purchase intention towards green apparel. Further, there is an indirect effect of altruism and openness to change on purchase intention through attitude supporting the value-attitude-behavior cognitive hierarchy (VABH). Besides, perceived behavioral control is found to mediate the impact of openness to change on intention to purchase green apparel. The root mean square of error (RMSE) values obtained from the ANN analysis suggest that the models show good predictive accuracy. The study contributes to the existing literature by confirming the applicability of the TPB and the VABH as well as suggesting a robust predictive framework by using ANN for green apparel purchase intention.     

Pirate or Buy? The Moderating Effect of Idolatry

Due to the development of information technology, music piracy has become an escalating problem. This study attempts to employ the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and the social identity theory to investigate the antecedents of downloading pop music illegally from the Internet, the relationship between the intention to illegally download music and the intention to buy music, and the moderating effects of idolatry. Data were collected from 350 teenagers in Northern Taiwan through questionnaire interviews conducted in city centers where teenagers gather. The results of partial least squares (PLS) analyses reconfirm the explanatory power of the TPB model with regard to the pop music illegal downloading behavior. However, it is interesting to note that the intention to illegally download music does not have a significant influence on the intention to buy music. This finding contradicts our common intuitions. Further analyses also reveal that idolatry moderates the relationship between the intention to illegally download music and the intention to buy music. For teenagers with high idolatry, a higher music downloading intention results in a lower buying intention. One possible explanation is the price of music CDs. Several interviews were also held to verify our results. Implications and a discussion are then provided.