Chinese outbound tourism: An alternative modernity perspective

Chinese outbound tourism has become of great interest to tourism scholars. This paper provides a brief review of the current theoretical discussion about modernity and alternative modernity and their connection to Chinese outbound tourism developments. The paper traces the progress of Chinese outbound tourism via the binary structure-agent approach. Its study integrates the institutional development of the Chinese tourism governing body over four decades as social structure, and as agents, analyzes the changing perceptions of Chinese outbound tourists. The study advocates that the Chinese outbound tourism sector has developed within the scope of alternative modernity. The paper indicates that the development of Chinese outbound tourism reflects a process of developing modern institutions and conceptual modernity over time.     

A panel data-based analysis of factors influencing market demand for Chinese outbound tourism

This paper presents data on the top 50 outbound destinations for Chinese tourists from 2002 to 2013. The total number of Chinese tourists traveling to these 50 destinations accounts for 95.38% of outbound travelers from China. We built a dynamic panel data model to measure factors that influence market demand for Chinese outbound tourism. The results show that economic variables such as income, tourism prices, and exchange rates have a significant influence on outbound tourism volume. The effect of bilateral goods trade and leisure time significantly differ between the full sample and the two subsamples, whereas political stability of the destinations and special incidents in China have no significant impact on demand for outbound tourism. Based on these findings, this study proposes strategies to strengthen the management of China’s outbound tourism market.     

To go or not to go: travel constraints and attractiveness of travel affecting outbound Chinese tourists to Japan

The fast growth of the Chinese economy has transformed Chinese outbound tourism into one of the major players in the tourism industry worldwide. However, Chinese outbound tourists may still encounter travel constraints in some countries, such as Japan, which has had a close and complicated relationship in history with China. This study adopted the qualitative approach by applying focus group and in-depth interviews to investigate and triangulate the travel barriers affecting Chinese outbound travel to Japan. The findings indicated that domestic nationalist sentiment played a key constraining role in influencing Chinese outbound travel decision-making, followed by current political factors, while quality products and service, as well as social environment encouraged tourists to travel. This research also found that visitors and non-visitors have perception differences in terms of travel barriers and attractiveness of travel.     

A broader social identity comes with stronger face consciousness: The effect of identity breadth on deviant tourist behavior among Chinese outbound tourists

Deviant tourist behavior (DTB) among Chinese outbound tourists has sparked concerns that such behavior not only exposes destinations to various negative impacts but also damages the international image of China. Hence, it is necessary to explore how to reduce such behavior. Social identity cues are an effective inhibitor of DTB; however, previous research has focused on the influence of the interdependent and interactive nature of social identities on DTB, neglecting the inclusive nature of social identities. To fill this gap, the current study focuses on how Chinese outbound tourists’ identity breadth affects their deviant behavior in international tourism contexts. In Study 1, we examine a distinctive feature of international tourism contexts and find that tourists have high face consciousness. Second, we propose and document that Chinese outbound tourists primed with a broad (vs. narrow) identity develop higher face consciousness and a lower intention to engage in deviant behavior (Studies 1 and 2), with face consciousness mediating this process (Study 3). Finally, Study 4 finds that the number of fellow tourists with the same identity moderates this effect. The influence of identity breadth on DTB is manifest when there are few in-group members present. Our findings provide meaningful practical and theoretical value regarding how to reduce tourists’ deviant behavior through identity-related cues.     

Development Characteristics and Implications of Mainland Chinese Outbound Tourism

This paper provides a thorough examination of the Mainland Chinese demand for outbound travel. It analyses the impacts of the Mainland Chinese outbound tourism market according to factors such as policy, economy and socio-political issues. The origins, destination perceptions and organization of Mainland Chinese outbound tourists are also explained, together with the negative impacts of tourism on Mainland Chinese travellers, travel agencies, national image and economic loss. Finally, the marketing policies for Mainland Chinese outbound tourism in travel agencies, government tourism offices and destinations are examined.     

The symbolism of international tourism in national identity

Drawing on symbolic interactionism, this paper explores the nexus between tourism and national identity in China. Unlike current research's focus on the role of inbound heritage tourism sites in fostering national identity, this study uses symbolic interactionism to frame an analysis of how Chinese national identity is expressed and affirmed as a phenomenon of experiential consumption through the act of international outbound tourism. A multi-method approach guided the data collection from 28 Chinese tourists in two groups. Data analysis follows a constructivist grounded theory approach that is expressly suited to symbolic interactionism. The findings revealed that international tourism offers a platform on which to affirm and express Chinese national identity through the symbolic interaction between Chinese tourists and the world outside of China.     

出境旅游需求的影响因素--兼论发展中经济体与发达经济体的异同

根据微观经济学的需求理论,结合相关研究进展,文章构建了包括基本经济因素（收入和相对价格）、对外开放度、旅游业发展水平、人口统计特征、突发事件等变量在内的出境旅游需求模型,以74个国家/地区1995—2013年的数据为样本,分析了发达经济体和发展中经济体出境旅游需求影响因素的总体特征与异同。结果表明,收入和价格是影响出境旅游需求的决定性因素,对外开放度、旅游业发展水平、人口统计特征及突发事件等其他因素对出境旅游需求同样具有一定的影响。其中,收入、价格以及产业发展水平对发展中经济体出境旅游需求的影响作用相对更大,而对外开放度和人口统计特征（就业水平、年龄结构和受教育水平）对发达经济体出境旅游需求的影响更加显著。     

收入与出境旅游率的非线性关系——基于门槛面板模型的实证证据

在各种有关出境旅游市场影响因素的研究中,收入水平与出境旅游的关系存在着显著的争议。文章判断二者之间存在着非线性关系,且因国家而异。该研究引入门槛回归模型,以世界95个国家和地区为研究总样本,并按照面积大小划分为3组,利用其1995~2011年的人均国民收入、出境旅游率、年龄结构、教育水平和就业水平数据,对收入和出境旅游率之间的相关关系进行了深入分析。研究发现:(1)各样本中,收入与出境旅游率均呈显著非线性相关。(2)样本不同,收入门槛值的数量和位置不同,促使出境旅游快速发展的收入门槛值也不同。说明国土面积对收入与出境旅游的关系具有潜在影响。(3)各控制变量总体上对出境旅游率具有正面影响。(4)中国出境旅游实际表现超过理论基准,处于快速超前发展的阶段。以上研究结果可以为一个国家或地区判定出境旅游的发展阶段及制定合适的旅游政策提供依据。     

Reflecting the convergence or divergence of Chinese outbound solo travellers based on the stimulus-organism-response model: A gender comparison perspective

Solo travel has grown as a significant segment in the tourism market, and outbound travel for solo travel is also increasing. However, the phenomenon remains anecdotal and lacks academic investigation. Therefore, based on of the stimulus-organism-response (SOR) model and focusing on Chinese solo tourists in the outbound travel market, the current study aims to examine the relationships among cultural distance, emotional solidarity and perceived safety and their effect on both solo male and female tourists' behavioural intentions. The similarities of solo travellers and their gender differences are prioritized in the findings, which sheds light on destination practitioners taking measures to serve the solo tourism market considering tourists' gender.     

When east meets west: An exploratory study on Chinese outbound tourists’ travel expectations

The booming Chinese outbound tourism has attracted worldwide attention. This study attempts to examine Chinese tourists’ expectations of outbound travel products. A series of focus groups were conducted in eleven cities in China and various issues, concerns, and problems were identified related to Chinese outbound tourists’ expectations of accommodations, food and restaurants, tour guides and itineraries, entertainment and activities, and transportation. The focus group results showed that, while Chinese outbound tourists share many of the same fundamental needs and desires of all tourists, this group has particular expectations in terms of amenities and service standards. Understanding these expectations may help Western service providers better serve this market.     

Information technology usage,motivation, and intention: a case of Chinese urban senior outbound travelers in the Yangtze River Delta region

Chinese outbound travel is thriving, with seniors taking an increasing market share. However, although outbound travel in general has been researched quite well, little is known specifically about the outbound travel behavior of Chinese seniors, or the effects of information technology (IT) on their vacation patterns. This study is an initial and exploratory attempt to understand the relation between IT usage and tourism behavior (travel motivation, travel intention, and sociodemographics) of Chinese senior outbound travelers. The results reveal four segments of IT usage, each with significantly different traveler profiles in terms of sociodemographics, travel motivation, and travel intention.     

Chinese Residents' Demand for Outbound Travel: Evidence from the Chinese Family Panel Studies

This paper investigates potential factors influencing Chinese residents' demand for outbound travel. Based on survey data from the Chinese Family Panel Studies project conducted in 2008, we utilize several discrete choice models to analyze (1) factors explaining Chinese residents' participation in outbound travel in the last five years and (2) factors explaining various types of outbound travel. We highlight the importance of age, hukou type, personal income, education level, domestic tourism participation, foreign language proficiency, life satisfaction, and Internet use to explain Chinese residents' outbound travel. We also observe regional differences and urban–rural differences by estimating the model using different sub-samples. Finally, implications are presented concerning marketing efforts in targeting potential Chinese outbound tourists.     

新形势下出境游发展应处理好几个关系

2002年7月1日《中国公民出国旅游管理办法》的实施，将我国出境旅游带入一个历史新阶段，表现出五大发展特点。因此，现阶段出境游发展需要重新认识形势，重新定位市场，重新思考发展策略。在此基础上，对出国游组团社提出了五个建议：珍惜特许经营权；加强自律，规范经营、网络化、品牌化发展；三大旅游市场全面推进；努力争取进行跨国经营。文章分析认为，出境游组团社之间实行互为代理，有利于促进旅行社在营销层次的网络化，推动形成批发与零售的专业化分工体系。     

Measuring price elasticities of demand for outbound tourism using competitiveness indices

The real exchange rate (REX) has long been used as the proxy for prices in tourism demand models. However it has limitations, particularly when it comes to models of outbound tourism. As an alternative, a price competitiveness index (PCI) is developed and used as a proxy for prices in a model of outbound tourism from Australia. Results obtained show that while REX is statistically insignificant and yields a price elasticity of −0.002, PCI is significant and generates a price elasticity of −1.07. The results obtained show that PCI outperforms REX as the preferred price variable in modelling outbound demand on both theoretic and empirical grounds. Furthermore, this index can be used to monitor the inter-temporal competitiveness of a destination.     

China's outbound tourism – Stages,policies and choices

China's outbound tourism has developed rapidly in recent years. This development has been accompanied by a continuous and expanding deficit in the tourism balance of trade, triggering debate among government officials and academia about whether China's outbound tourism development has outgrown general economic development. Understanding China's growth in outbound tourism and its impact has therefore become more than an academic issue; it also affects the future orientation of China's tourism policy. This paper provides a detailed analysis of the tourists, spatial flow, market size, and expenditure. Despite the above concerns, it is suggested that China's outbound tourism is still in a preliminary stage of development and furthermore complies fully with national policies. Therefore, orderly guidance and discretionary market policies are proposed to further facilitate the growth of the outbound tourism market in China.     

Modelling substitution between domestic and outbound tourism in Australia: A system-of-equations approach

This study uses a system-of-equations approach to model the substitution relationship between Australian domestic and outbound tourism demand. A new price variable based on relative ratios of purchasing power parity index is developed for the substitution analysis. Short-run demand elasticities are calculated based on the estimated error correction almost ideal demand systems. The empirical results reveal significant substitution relationships between Australian domestic tourism and outbound travel to Asia, the UK and the US. This study provides scientific support for necessary policy considerations to promote domestic tourism further.     

Towards a Conceptualization of Unethical Marketing Practices in Tourism: a Case‐Study of Australia's Inbound Chinese Travel Market

This paper has a twofold purpose: to identify the types and impacts of unethical practices in an international travel market and to offer a generic model to enhance our understanding of the causes and consequences of such practices. The Chinese outbound market is used as a case study. The choice of China is timely and appropriate, given that the country is forecast to be one of the world's major outbound markets by 2010 with over 100 million leaving mainland China (World Tourism Organization [WTO], 2006 World Tourism Organization. 2006, November 7. The Chinese outbound tourism market Retrieved March 19, 2007, from http://www.unwto.org/media/Releases/2006/november/chineseoutbound.htm [Google Scholar]). The research setting is the Chinese inbound tourism market to Australia where the Chinese market has grown substantially since Approved Destination Status (ADS) was granted in 1999. The implications of this research for European and North American tourism operators are significant, given the 2005 agreement between the European Commission and the Chinese authorities that allows group travel from China into Europe. Using the long‐interview technique with industry participants in Australia and China a conceptual framework of the environment in which unethical practices occur is provided. A model illustrating antecedents, impacts, and outcomes of unethical practices is offered. Key managerial findings include the unhealthy consolidation of channel power in the Chinese market and the influence of ethnic networks across borders. Several key issues requiring further research are highlighted.     

Does personal freedom influence outbound tourism?

The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of personal freedom in a country on outbound tourism after controlling for other relevant outbound tourism determinants. Using a panel of 80 countries over a period of 13 years (1999–2011) and applying panel fixed-effects and generalized method of moments (GMM) techniques, our results reveal that a lower level of personal freedom in a country increases outbound tourism. These results are more robust for developing countries.     

中国出境旅游发展及其影响的初步研究

出境旅游持续快速增长,国际旅游双流格局渐次形成,是当前中国旅游业国际化的主要表现.出境旅游发展会改变国际旅游收支关系,但是,即使出现旅游赤字,也不一定对宏观经济产生负面作用.出境旅游发展会刺激中国入境旅游增长,促进旅游企业的跨国经营,有利于提升中国旅游产业的整体素质.当前,政府无需对出境旅游加以直接规制,但需要采取多种跟进措施.     

China's outward foreign direct investment in tourism

This study investigates the factors that influence China's outward foreign direct investment (OFDI) in tourism. Employing a panel dataset involving 21 host countries for 10 years (2004–2013), negative binomial regression modelling showed that Chinese outbound investment in tourism is, at least in part, determined by volume of tourism flows to host country, the scale of tourism in that country and the openness to inbound investment. Other variables such as trade relationships between donor and recipient country and measures of innovation were seemingly of little importance. The study indicates a divergence of Chinese firms' OFDI in tourism from its general OFDI country choice pattern and confirms that sector-specific factors may be playing a more significant part in China's OFDI in tourism.