Analysis on CO2 Emissions Transferred from Developed Economies to China through Trade

Based on a global input–output model, this paper investigates the CO₂ emission transfer between China and developed economies through trade. The results show that approximately 15–23 percent of China's production‐based emissions during 1995–2009 were induced by the production of goods and services satisfying final demand in developed economies. Decomposition of emission transfers shows that trade of intermediate products played a significant role in emission transfer from developed economies to China. Most developed economies have consumption‐based emission responsibilities that are higher than their production‐based responsibilities, whereas China's consumption‐based responsibility is significantly lower than its production‐based responsibility. We argue that a fair and efficient carbon accounting approach should take CO emission transfers from developed economies to developing economies into consideration. It is important that China and its developed trade partners cooperate in reducing emission transfers.     

Textiles and clothing exports from india and china: a comparative analysis

This paper compares the export performance of the textiles and clothing industries in India and China using the revealed comparative advantage and the Kreinin-Finger similarity indices. The results indicate that China has much higher shares in world exports of both textiles and clothing, while India has a comparative advantage in women's clothing of various sorts and men's shirts. With the abolition of the MFA, China is likely to gain at the expense of India in most items of exports of clothing, even in categories where India has a higher market share than China. India would have to improve her competitive strengths in export markets vis-à-vis China, especially so in high value design oriented products in the EU and the US markets.     

The Belt,the Road,and the carbon emissions in China

This paper explores the effect of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) on China's exports and the domestic carbon emissions induced by the exports. We employ a decomposition framework to assess the driving factors of the change of CO₂ emissions induced by China's exports to different destinations and evaluate the main contributions of the gap between the BRI countries and non-BRI (NBRI) countries. The decomposition results show that while the scale effect was the dominant force behind the pre-BRI emission growth, the contribution of the composition effect became more prominent after the inception of the Initiative. Our econometric analysis suggests that the Initiative leads to an increase in the share of carbon-intensive products in China's exports to the BRI countries by nearly 5 percentage points, which is approximately one quarter of the share of carbon-intensive exports to the BRI countries. A further investigation reveals that China's international project contracting is the main channel that has resulted in the increase of the share of carbon-intensive exports in China's exports to the BRI countries.     

Efficiency vs. equity as China's national carbon market meets provincial electricity markets

Emissions reduction in the electricity sector is critical in achieving China's carbon neutrality target. While a national carbon trading market that covers the electricity sector has been established, its effectiveness depends on how this sector evolves into being a more integrated market. This study evaluated the impact of China's electricity market integration on the cost-effectiveness of carbon pricing. An integrated (regional electricity market) and a segmented (provincial electricity market) market scenario were used to identify possible reform paths going forward. Using high-frequency datasets of the five southern provinces in 2018, we assessed the impact of electricity market integration on the abatement potential and cost-effectiveness of carbon pricing. We found that carbon prices need to be as high as 200 yuan/ton to begin achieving overall carbon reduction. In this context, the regional market is more cost-effective in reducing emissions than the provincial one, as the abatement costs are saved by around 60% compared to the latter under the same emission reduction targets. However, the regional market may also raise potential equity issues. The provincial-level distribution of carbon emission reductions, as well as the withdrawal of coal power, are more concentrated in the regional market than in the provincial one, which indicates an inequitable social-economic-environmental impacts of market integration. Our research findings would help to improve policymakers' understanding of the interaction between carbon pricing and electricity market reforms. This would then assist them in coordinating an effective design of both the carbon and electricity markets, in addition to supporting China's carbon neutrality target.     

产业结构优化对碳排放的影响——基于空间计量经济模型

基于2003—2017年中国各省份面板数据,首先,运用空间固定效应杜宾模型,研究了产业结构优化对碳排放的影响。结果表明:产业结构优化降低了本省碳排放水平,但是通过分解产结构优化对碳排放的效应可知,虽然本省通过产业结构优化降低了本省碳排放,但却增加了邻近省份的碳排放量。其次,运用地理加权回归模型研究产业结构优化存在空间异质性对碳排放的影响。通过模型回归结果发现:发达省份的直接效应较小,而间接效应则较大,对于相对不发达的省份则相反。     

Tracing value added in gross exports of China: Comparison with the USA,Japan, Korea,and India based on generalized LMDI

This study first traces value added in gross exports of China during 2000–2014 to four components, namely domestic value added absorbed abroad (DVA), domestic value added return home (RDV), foreign value added (FVA), and pure double-counted terms (PDC), then compares these four components in China's exports with those in exports of the USA, Japan, Korea, and India. Second, this paper proposes a generalized logarithmic mean Divisia index (GLMDI) method and combines additive and multiplicative decomposition to decompose DVA gaps between China and the other four countries into value added coefficient effect, input-output structure effect, domestic scale effect and foreign scale effect. The aggregate value added coefficient effect is then attributed to sectoral level. Results show that DVA always occupied the largest share in the gross exports of China, which ranged from 74.60–82.84% during 2000–2014. Before 2011, DVA share of China's exports was generally the second smallest among five countries; since 2011, DVA share of China's exports increased, and China had the largest DVA share in 2014 (81.39%). Sectors having a large FVA share in China's exports usually had a large DVA share, such as “Mining” (MIN), “Computers, Electronic and Optical” (CEO), and “Basic Metals” (BAS). Additive and multiplicative decomposition analyses indicate that value added coefficients had a negative and increased effect on DVA gaps between China and the other four countries. Attribution analysis revealed that CEO sector had the largest negative value added coefficient effect in comparison between China and the USA, Japan, and Korea and its effect increased in comparison between China and the other four countries. Policy implications derived are finally discussed.     

Analysis of regional carbon allocation and carbon trading based on net primary productivity in China

Ecological balance and carbon sink economies have gained increased attention for tackling global warming. Based on an improved Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach model, this study demonstrated regional Net Primary Productivity (NPP) and analyzed regional carbon overdraft situations in China during 2005–2015. Regional carbon allowances were allocated according to carrying capacity of carbon sequestration and China's carbon intensity reduction goals in “13th Five-year plan”. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) technology with panel data was further employed to estimate potential benefits resulting from carbon trading and a carbon sink economy. Regional NPP decreased from south to north and from coast to inland, while regions with severe carbon overdrafts were gathered in North and East China. In order to maintain a regional carbon balance with lower abatement costs, regional cooperation of emission reduction within either North or East China is proposed in this study. It is concluded that the majority of provinces and cities in Eastern China and some provinces in the west would be the major purchasers of carbon credits under a national carbon emissions trading (CET) market. Following the introduction of emissions offset mechanisms, Yunnan, Sichuan, and Heilongjiang would be the major providers of carbon sinks in China.     

China in the Global Response to Climate Change

China has a huge national interest in the success of the international effort to hold human-induced increases in temperature to 1.5 degrees – and therefore in global net emissions falling to net zero by 2050. China is essential to the success of the global effort – as a supplier of competitively priced equipment for the zero emissions world economy and as the world's largest current source of greenhouse gas emissions. Success is more likely for China and the world with international specialization in goods production for the zero emissions economy. This will require open international trade, with China supplying equipment and drawing zero emissions semi-processed goods from abroad. Success is more likely and will be achieved at a lower cost if there is close cooperation across national boundaries.     

我国二氧化碳排放的影响因素：基于省级面板数据的研究

本文较为精确地估算了1995—2007年我国29个省的人均二氧化碳（CO2）排放量和排放总量,构建了省级CO2排放面板数据库,并分别在静态和动态面板数据模型框架下,考察了我国CO2排放的影响因素。研究结果显示,重工业比重、城市化水平和煤炭消费比重都对我国的CO2排放都具有显著正的影响;经济发展水平和人均CO2排放量之间则存在倒U型关系,环境库兹涅兹曲线假说成立;上一期人均CO2排放量的大小对本期的排放量具有显著正的影响。     

中国石灰产业碳排放影响因素分析及趋势预测

基于LMDI模型,以2001—2012年中国经济人口发展及石灰产业碳排放数据为样本,从5个方面对石灰产业的碳排放影响因素进行分解研究。结果表明,技术发展效应、经济增长效应以及人口规模效应是影响石灰产业碳排放量变化的主要因素,且影响趋势有所不同。基于GM(1,1)模型对中国石灰产业未来碳排放量进行预测,2030年排放量预测将达到4.48亿t。基于影响因素分析及碳排放趋势预测结果,从技术创新、政策制定等方面对中国石灰产业的低碳发展提出建议。     

区域异质性视角下的碳排放、经济增长与产业结构——基于PVAR模型的实证研究

选取1995—2019年中国省域面板数据,构建PVAR模型,探究东中西三大区域碳排放、经济增长与产业结构的互动影响。研究结果表明：从全国层面来看,经济增长带动产业结构高级化发展,并与碳排放之间存在长期动态耦合关系,且需长期看待产业结构带来的碳减排作用;从区域异质性来看,东中部地区基本实现变量间协调发展,西部地区碳排放对经济增长更依赖,但三者间并没有形成良好的互动机制。最后依据研究结果,对各区域低碳协调发展提出政策建议。     

Climate change impacts on China's agriculture: The responses from market and trade

China's food security has been facing several challenges, which are likely to be worsened due to climate change. The purpose of this paper is to provide an evidence on the impacts of climate change on China's agriculture, with particular attention to the market and trade responses. Using projected crop yield changes for China and its' main trading partners under changing climate, we employ an agricultural partial equilibrium model (CAPSiM) and a linked national and global equilibrium model (CAPSiM-GTAP) to assess the impacts on food production, price, trade and self-sufficiency of China. Our results show that climate change will have significant effects on crop production though with large differences among crops. Under the worst climate change scenario RCP 8.5, wheat yield in China is projected to decline by 9.4% by 2050, which is the biggest yield reduction among the crops. However, the market can also respond to the climate change, as farmers can change inputs in response to reduced yields and rising prices. As a result, production losses for most crops are dampened. For example, wheat production loss under RCP8.5 reduces to only 4.3% due to market response. The adverse impacts on crop production will be further reduced after accounting for the trade response as farmers adjust production to much higher prices in the more severely affected countries. The paper concludes that we need to learn more from farmers who optimize their production decisions in response to the market and trade signals during climate change. A major policy implication is that policymakers need to mainstream the market and trade responses into national plans for climate adaptation.     

中美贸易与气候变化——基于投入产出法的分析

贸易的全球化对人类环境产生了重要的影响,碳泄漏问题成为环境与贸易冲突在气候变化领域中的体现。本文以投入产出法为基础建立经济模型,计算了1997～2007年中美贸易对气候变化的影响。结果表明,中美贸易使得美国的CO2排放量减少了2%～4%,中国增加了14%～20%,全球增加了2%～4%。因此,在设计国际气候制度时应考虑国际贸易的影响,美国应该为中国的部分CO2排放负责,中国应提高工业部门能源效率,改善出口商品结构并且在环境与贸易利益方面做出权衡取舍。     

Pollution abatement costs and technical changes under different environmental regulations

Balancing economic growth and environmental protection is a global issue that requires both scientific and economic consideration. In this study, we employed a joint production model that accounted for both favorable and unfavorable outputs to calculate the changes in pollution abatement costs (PACs) and the decomposition of SO₂ emissions in China's industrial sector from 2001– to 2015. Command-and-control and tradable permit environmental regulation scenarios were specified to assess PACs and changes in these costs associated with changes in technology, input, and unfavorable output production. Our empirical results show that the PACs increased by 0.06% and 0.34% under command-and-control and tradable permit scenarios, respectively. Further analyses of these changes indicated that regulated technology grew faster than unregulated under both scenarios; overall, command-and-control regulations were more conducive to green technological innovations. Both types of environmental regulation reduced industrial SO₂ emissions, and the difference between them was minimal. Under the two scenarios, the pollution emissions intensity decreased. Moreover, because the tradable permit policy improved favorable output production via the optimal allocation of resources, the intensity of pollution emissions was significantly lower. As there were advantages to both regulatory options, their balanced application is vital in the short-run. In the long-term, measures should be taken to ensure the full trading of SO₂ emission rights. The focus of environmental policies should gradually shift to an emissions trading system to achieve the balanced development of China's environment and economy.     

The U.S. proposed carbon tariffs, WTO scrutiny and China’s responses

With governments from around the world trying to hammer out a post-2012 climate change agreement, no one would disagree that a U.S. commitment to cut greenhouse gas emissions is essential to such a global pact. However, despite U.S. president Obama’s announcement to push for a commitment to cut U.S. greenhouse gas emissions by 17% by 2020, in reality it is questionable whether U.S. Congress will agree to specific emissions cuts, although they are not ambitious at all from the perspectives of both the EU and developing countries, without the imposition of carbon tariffs on Chinese products to the U.S. market, even given China’s own announcement to voluntarily seek to reduce its carbon intensity by 40–45% over the same period. This dilemma is partly attributed to flaws in current international climate negotiations, which have been focused on commitments on the two targeted dates of 2020 and 2050. However, if the international climate change negotiations continue on their current course without extending the commitment period to 2030, which would really open the possibility for the U.S. and China to make the commitments that each wants from the other, the inclusion of border carbon adjustment measures seems essential to secure passage of any U.S. legislation capping its own greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, the joint WTO-UNEP report indicates that border carbon adjustment measures might be allowed under the existing WTO rules, depending on their specific design features and the specific conditions for implementing them. Against this background, this paper argues that, on the U.S. side, there is a need to minimize the potential conflicts with WTO provisions in designing such border carbon adjustment measures. The U.S. also needs to explore, with its trading partners, ccooperative sectoral approaches to advancing low-carbon technologies and/or concerted mitigation efforts in a given sector at the international level. Moreover, to increase the prospects for a successful WTO defence of the Waxman-Markey type of border adjustment provision, there should be: 1) a period of good faith efforts to reach agreements among the countries concerned before imposing such trade measures; 2) consideration of alternatives to trade provisions that could reasonably be expected to fulfill the same function but are not inconsistent or less inconsistent with the relevant WTO provisions; and 3) trade provisions that should allow importers to submit equivalent emission reduction units that are recognized by international treaties to cover the carbon contents of imported products. Meanwhile, being targeted by such border carbon adjustment measures, China needs to, at the right time, indicate a serious commitment to address climate change issues to challenge the legitimacy of the U.S. imposing carbon tariffs by signaling well ahead that it will take on binding absolute emission caps around the year 2030, and needs the three transitional periods of increasing climate obligations before taking on absolute emissions caps. This paper argues that there is a clear need within a climate regime to define comparable efforts towards climate mitigation and adaptation to discipline the use of unilateral trade measures at the international level. As exemplified by export tariffs that China applied on its own during 2006–08, the paper shows that defining the comparability of climate efforts can be to China’s advantage. Furthermore, given the fact that, in volume terms, energy-intensive manufacturing in China values 7 to 8 times that of India, and thus carbon tariffs have a greater impact on China than on India, the paper questions whether China should hold the same stance on this issue as India as it does now, although the two largest developing countries should continue to take a common position on other key issues in international climate change negotiations.     

低碳中国中的新疆：地位、挑战与策略

自2009年气候大会作出减排承诺后,中国政府出台了一系列的政策法规,国内各省市也积极参与实施。新疆的经济总量在全国所占份额很少,但资源丰富,是能源输出省份,也是国家的能源基地,虽然目前新疆的碳排放总量不大,但其增长速度和万元GDP碳排放量却远高于全国的平均水平。由于在能源结构、经济水平、交通运输和装备技术等方面面临着挑战,因此,本文从政策和技术两方面提出了新疆发展低碳经济的策略。     

CO2 Emissions Embodied in China＇s Foreign Trade： An Investigation from the Perspective of Global Vertical Specialization

In light of the growth in vertically specialized in global trade, the present paper uses input output tables from the World Input-Output Database to construct an environmental multi regional input-output model to calculate the CO2 emissions embodied in China＇s international trade during 1995-2009. The advantage of this model lies in its incorporation of the re exported CO2 emissions component embodied in trade and its ability to differentiate domestic sourced CO2 emissions from foreign-sourced CO2 emissions in trade. The results show that carbon emissions embodied in both China＇s exports and imports increased significantly during 1995-2009. One important reason for this is that the re-exported carbon emissions embodied in China＇s imported intermediate inputs increased substantially during this period. Our research reveals that accelerating the transformation of trade pattern and upgrading processing trade should be emphasized in the formulation of policy to prompt CO 2 emissions abatement in China.     

A Bite of China: Food consumption and carbon emission from 1992 to 2007

In conjunction with the rapid rise in household food expenditures per capita, China's food consumption has increased greatly. At the same time, dietary patterns have changed dramatically, as between 1992 and 2007 China underwent a transition to a more animal-based westernized diet. This rise in food consumption and shift in dietary structure may contribute substantially to climate change. In this paper, an input-output model is used to explore the food-related carbon emissions of Chinese urban households in 1992 and 2007. The results indicate that the physical volume of and economic expenditures on food consumption have increased by 20.7% and 35.9%, respectively. However, food-related carbon emissions per capita in 2007 had decreased nearly 21% compared to emissions in 1992. Based on parametric estimates of environmental Engel Curves and the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition, the variation in household income may lead to a hypothetical carbon emissions increase of 1.694 tons. However, the improvement in energy use efficiency had offset the impact from income growth and dietary transition and led to the drop in China's food-related carbon emissions from 1992 to 2007.     

我国传统制造业低碳化驱动因素研究

随着低碳经济的提出,人们越来越关注碳排放对全球变暖的影响.我国传统制造业作为国家经济的支柱产业,其二氧化碳的排放量占全国碳排放量的多数比例.文章通过发达国家与中国在能源消费量,能源消费结构,国内生产总值能耗,二氧化碳气体排放量占世界比重等方面的对比分析,研究了我国传统制造业低碳化的驱动因素进而提出相应的对策建议.     

Economic Benefits and Environmental Costs of China's Exports: A Comparison with the USA Based on Network Analysis

This paper decomposes economic benefits (value‐added) and environmental costs (CO₂) of exports according to their sources, and maps the global value network (GVN) and the global emissions network (GEN) for China's exports during 1995–2009 from national, sectoral and national–sectoral perspectives. A comparison is conducted between China and the USA. National GVN and GEN show that shares of value‐added and CO₂ emissions from China in its GVN and GEN both decreased first then increased after 2006, while shares from the USA in its GVN and GEN generally decreased. Sectoral GVN and GEN show that among China's exports, “electrical and optical equipment” and “electricity, gas and water supply” were, respectively, the sectors that obtained the most value‐added and emitted the most CO₂. National–sectoral GVN and GEN for China exhibited reciprocal and disassortative patterns, and in‐strengths and out‐strengths of GVN and GEN for China's exports were mainly captured by several domestic country–sector pairs.