Local community perspectives towards dark tourism development: The case of Snowtown,South Australia

This paper critically examines the perspectives of a local community towards dark tourism development. Based on the infamous case of the Snowtown murders in South Australia, this preliminary study observes the local community's perception towards dark tourism development and adopted a qualitative methodology using observation and interview. The findings revealed that attitudes towards the development of dark tourism varied considerably depending on residents' length of immersion in the area. Whilst long-term residents were predominantly against the development of tourism involving Snowtown's recent dark past, others, particularly those that had moved to the area after the perpetrators of the Snowtown murders were caught (post-1999), were welcoming of the idea. The study posits that official tourism bodies in South Australia need to respond to the demand for dark tourism in Snowtown and provide the area with appropriate tourism infrastructure. However, due to the highly contrasting resident opinions towards dark tourism, it is also imperative that they consult the local community in future decision-making processes.     

Rural tourism development in China

This paper provides an overview and brief evaluation of China's rural tourism. Beginning with the form of poverty alleviation through tourism, China's rural tourism has undergone over 20 years of development and exhibited some unique features in its development pattern, scale and business operational models in accordance with China's political, social and economic systems. Government plays a decisive role in developing rural tourism in China. However, rural tourism has been valued mainly as an economic means for rural development during the country's modernisation process. Overlooking rurality as an essential issue in rural tourism may lead development to a wrong direction, which could jeopardise the sustainability of the industry. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Approaching tourism: perspectives from the young hosts in a rural heritage community in Tibet

This study reports an investigation of the ways in which local youth understand tourism in a rural heritage community in Tibet, China. The sustainable livelihoods framework was adopted to organise the areas of interest. Focus groups were initially conducted, and the resulting information was used in a subsequent questionnaire-based survey. It was found that the young Tibetan hosts understood tourists as ‘passers-by' in different vehicles. The tourists were seen as visiting the community because of two major tourism resources: the traditional Tibetan incense-making techniques, and the residence and culture of a Tibetan historical figure. The youth were positive towards tourism development in their community and identified some activities and strategies for their involvement in tourism. In assessing future outcomes and directions for tourism, the rural Tibetan youth would like to see both community and personal well-being improved through tourism.     

The life cycle of authenticity: neo-nomadic tourism culture in Kazakhstan

The paper presents the findings related to the stages of life cycle of authenticity where Kazakhstani nomadic culture in a post-Soviet heritage evolves towards tourist consumption. Using a qualitative case-study research approach, the analysis of data traces stakeholders’ perception of authenticity of various elements of Kazakhstani cultural tourism. The study intertwines inextricably with the processes of authenticity, commodification and cultural change as Kazakhstani traditions have evolved to a neo-nomadic tourism culture where authenticity becomes a currency at play and a point of differentiation from other tourism destinations. The findings offer an original approach to understand the transformation of authenticity at various stages of Kazakhstani tourism development and explore how authenticity is positioned in the influx of tourists and supporting roles from local governments and organisations.     

‘We make more money now,but we don’t talk to each other anymore’: on new tourism and capitalism in the Danube Delta

ABSTRACT

In 1991, the Danube Delta (Romania), famous for its biodiversity, became a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Tourists have been a constant presence in this area for more than 50 years, being accommodated exclusively, informally, in the local fishing households. Relying on extended participant observation and semi-structured interviews as the main research methods, this study presents how locals from a fishing village relate to tourism and how this process leaves a significant imprint on their social organization, use of natural resources, household economy, norms and values. Exposed to new ideas, opportunities and challenges brought in by tourism, locals are not being swept away, as many of the studies in anthropology of fishing and tourism suggest, but rather act like ‘individuals with agency’, actually empowered by tourism; local fishing and women’s traditional role as ‘the manager of the household’ are reinforced by tourists’ demands for ‘home-cooked fish dish’ and local accommodation. On the other hand, the new tourism has launched local families into a constant competition for natural resources, eroding social cohesion while leading to a commodification of family relationships.     

Contradictions of Rural Tourism Initiatives in Rural Development Contexts: Finnish Rural Tourism Strategy Case Study

In Western countries rural areas have faced major changes and challenges in the past decades. The role of traditional economies has decreased rapidly and the economic transition of rural areas has turned increasingly towards tourism production. By using a Finnish national scale rural tourism strategy and development programme as a case example, this paper argues that, while tourism can provide development for rural areas, the unrealistic expectations and goals may cause problems for rural communities. Unfeasible development goals of rural tourism are seen as the results of insufficient understanding of tourism dynamics and the lack of research-based or otherwise valid knowledge in development plans. In addition the connection between the ideas of rural tourism and sustainability is challenged in high tourism development goals and the related processes.     

Rural tourism — meeting the challenges of the new South Africa

Rural tourism in South Africa has undergone fundamental change since the advent of political democracy in 1995. Previously perceived as a ‘white man's thing’, rural tourism is increasingly finding a home amongst South Africa's formerly marginalised rural communities. The country has considerable potential in attracting tourists in search of new, exciting experiences in areas of unexploited natural beauty and rich cultural resources. The concept of rural tourism has mushroomed to include adventure tourism activities, cultural tourism and, lately, a new phenomenon in rural communities known as ‘township tourism’. There are, however, substantial challenges to be overcome if the rural tourism sector is to achieve its goals. These include a lack of capacity at local government level, the difficulties involved in operationalising community‐based rural tourism and the dearth of entrepreneurial expertise, management skills and capital with which to expand the rural tourism infrastructure. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Local stakeholders,role and tourism development

Building sustainable communities, as well as sustainable forms of livelihood, including tourism, has been a key objective among many government agencies and community stakeholders. Against this background, and through the lens of role theory, the present study investigates the potential for sustainable tourism to be developed in a rural community. Data were gathered among business owners and residents of Bridgetown, Western Australia. Four key groups of participants emerged, each emphasizing participants' role as community, and therefore, as tourism stakeholders. Alignment with various perspectives of role theory, including functional, “symbolic interactionist”, structural and cognitive was noticed; similarly, consensus, conformity and role taking were identified as key concepts. Whether currently involved in tourism or not, participants' pro-active role suggesting practical ways to enhance the sustainability of local tourism could be a powerful tool in this and other communities seeking to build their destination image.     

Commodification of Volunteer Tourism: a Comparative Study of Volunteer Tourists in Vietnam and in Thailand

Volunteer tourism (VT) has often been depicted as a means of avoiding the commodification of tourism (and even ecotourism) by ensuring that local communities benefit from VT, both environmentally and economically, and that there is authentic engagement by the tourists with indigent people and their cultures. However, critics have questioned this claim, arguing that VT has become little different from tourism and ecotourism, entailing commodification by providing profit for VT organizations rather than for local communities and consuming rather than respecting local environments and cultures. This study tests these claims and counterclaims by a comparative analysis of two VT experiences, one in Vietnam and the other in Thailand. The findings of the study are that although each cohort of volunteer tourists (VTs) exhibited elements of both decommodification and commodification, on a continuum of decommodification and commodification, the Vietnam VTs were closer to the decommodification node, whereas the Thailand VTs were closer to the commodification node. In part, this was because the Vietnam VT project was pitched more towards conservation research, whereas the Thailand VT project was pitched more towards vacation conservation. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sustainability of Tourism Development in Macao,China

To maximize the benefits to stakeholders in Macao, the sustainability of Macao tourism was examined by assessing the economic, socio‐cultural and environmental impacts of tourism, visitor satisfaction and the level of community involvement in local tourism planning from 2002 to 2009, through the use of primary and secondary data. The results revealed that tourism did bring both positive and negative impacts to the community. Visitor satisfaction was found to be moderate. Channels for community participation in local tourism development were also lacking. The paper suggests that for sustainable tourism development, Macao needs to diversify away from its casino industry, to speed up the construction of the public transport system and to keep monitoring the environmental conditions, the students' drop‐out and crime rate and the locals' quality of life. More importantly, a master plan for its tourism development integrating all the key stakeholders' interests is urgently required. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rural tourism development in the USA

Rural tourism has been a subject of study since the early days of tourism scholarship. Most of tourism's deleterious impacts were identified from studies conducted in rural settings. It is only recently, however, that rural tourism has become a special focus of study, dissimilar enough from urban tourism, to be a study subject unto itself. This paper reviews some of the history of rural tourism development in North America with most of the attention paid to the USA's experience, with some examples from Canada. The reason for this is the huge economic difference between the two countries with respect to tourism flows and impacts. In reviewing the history of rural development in the USA, the argument is made that most developments are unplanned and result from market and economic forces that have greatly transformed the American rural landscape. A review of these transformational forces is provided. It is also shown that rural destinations are used, primarily, by local tourists and do not, with few exceptions, cater to an international clientele. After the historical perspective is presented an argument is made that current rural tourism development practices rely on an old paradigm, which is to use local attributes as the primary basis for development and marketing strategies. This has led, in recent years, to a great deal of development attention being paid to the cultural/heritage attributes of a place. Using research conducted in the state of Minnesota on highway travellers and tourists to rural destinations, a new way to look at actual and potential visitors is offered. Instead of an attribute‐specific development approach, a benefits‐based model is suggested as a different way to position rural tourism destinations. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The development of olive tourism in Western Australia: a case study of an emerging tourism industry

The recent development of olive growing in Western Australia, and its amalgamation with tourism and hospitality, provides opportunities for growers to showcase their products and for visitors to experience olive‐tasting and learn about an ancient food culture and rural activity ‘transplanted’ into the ‘New World’ from its ‘Old World’ roots. The present study examines the dimensions of this emerging niche market in Western Australia. Face‐to‐face and telephone interviews were conducted among 23 small olive‐growing operations located in this region to understand their scope for developing olive tourism. Overall, respondents' comments suggest that their involvement in olive tourism and hospitality could substantially provide benefits for visitors to rural areas and become a complementary alternative to other activities. To fulfil this potential, however, growers heavily rely on greater collaboration within their own industry, as well as on local authorities and tourism bodies in ways that include assistance, partnerships and promotion. Moreover, collaboration between olive growers and regional/tourism stakeholders, as well as government support may not only contribute to the sustainability of olive growing, but also to the emergence of olive tourism. In turn, these developments may also help develop a culinary identity and a tourism concept that may help minimise the threats of outside competition (cheaper olive imports) and rural decline. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The cooperation model between tourism development and traditional culture: new perspectives on regional context

This study provides new insights on regional context that culminate in a proposed model of the elements determining the development stage of regional cultural tourism. In-depth interviews were conducted with 25 regional participants, collecting data on tourist arrivals, investors, and residents' attitudes in the Sanyi region, Taiwan. Responses, especially those who are not economically dependent on the tourism industry, had negative attitudes toward the increase in tourists. Even so, most responses support cultural tourism development and are willing to participate in tourist festivals. Overall, investment responses preferred preserving traditional culture and less commercial activities. Results expressed the sense that developing tourism can also help preserve and allow more visitors a chance to experience the traditional culture. It is shown that Sanyi is in the third stage, advanced commodification, of the process of creative destruction, with signs that it is moving into the fourth stage, early destruction. The model emphasizes that the increasing number of tourists and positive attitudes of the residents can stimulate the introduction of investors and the development stage of regional cultural tourism. Managerial implications are provided for cultural tourism driven economic development and planning.     

Teasing the boundaries of ‘volunteer tourism’: local NGOs looking for global workforce

Ongoing scholarly discussions on international volunteer tourism focus primarily on volunteer tourists as subjects and local communities as their near-static objects. This ethnographic study reverses that focus. Five developmental Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are explored as active agents that see tourists and travellers as a resource and a free workforce in Dharamsala's Tibetan diaspora settlement in India. These NGOs have found a unique way of increasing the volume of volunteer tourism by offering tourists and travellers accessible volunteering opportunities on the spot, particularly as English-language tutors for Tibetan newcomers. Tourists and travellers in Dharamsala are backpacker oriented and usually interested in Tibetan culture, representing a perfect target group for NGOs offering them meaningful encounters with Tibetans. This study aims to broaden the scope of scholarly discussion and conceptualization of volunteer tourism. It provides an example of how volunteer tourism could become an increasingly effective tool for NGOs in the Global South, in an increasingly equitable manner. It also demonstrates how the method found by the Tibetan NGOs contests the current critique of commodification in volunteer tourism. Within volunteer tourism, true empowerment of local communities can only occur when the locals are in control and able to set their own goals.     

Tourism Development: The Challenges of Achieving Sustainable Livelihoods in Bhutan's Remote Reaches

Merak–Sakteng is a remote area of Bhutan, which is targeted for development of tourism owing to the unique culture and way of life of the semi‐nomadic local ‘Brokpa’ people, whose livelihoods depend on herding yaks and sheep. These livestock enter forests where local residents and government see their grazing as threatening their crops and causing environmental degradation. The semi‐nomadic life centred on livestock, which has long been essential to Brokpa culture and economy, thus comes under threat. The opening of Merak–Sakteng to tourism is intended to address this conflict by lessening the Brokpas' economic dependence on livestock. This paper reports on research into the potential of tourism to transform this ethnic minority's economic way of life through the introduction of tourism into the local livelihood mix. Sustainable livelihoods issues are investigated through a consideration of both economic and socio‐cultural aspects of the local way of life, based on observation, and the findings of a survey of local people, semi‐structured interviews with village leaders and government officials concerning development of the area. The survey found that despite land‐use conflicts and limited grazing land, Brokpas still aspired to spend money gained from tourism on purchasing more yaks, which may escalate land‐use conflicts and threaten environmental sustainability. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Moving beyond tourists’ concepts of authenticity: place-based tourism differentiation within rural zones of Chilean Patagonia

This paper explores the potential for rural and remote zones of emergent destinations to base their tourism development on endogenous resources and place-based differentiation through analysis of a two-phase case study within the geographic zone known as Patagonia. The first phase of the research explored independent tourism consumption within a new independent travel circuit designed to integrate rural zones of the Aysén Region of Chile with adjacent tourism zones in the Santa Cruz Province of Argentina, including the iconic Mount Fitz Roy and the town of El Chalten. This phase sought to understand perceptions and preferences relating to authenticity. Results highlighted differences between host and guest concepts of welcomeness; which, negatively impacted consumption in the rural Chilean zones of the circuit. The second phase explored local service provider perspectives within these zones, surfacing place-based customs and practices that; while authentic, were not recognized, understood, or valued by the visitors who participated in phase one. Discussion proposes that subtle aspects of local cultures, such as those identified by the current study, represent unrecognized endogenous assets that can be leveraged within differentiation strategies for place-based development, thus providing emergent destinations with alternatives to place-neutral strategies, like commodification and standardization.     

Creative tourism in Balinese rural communities

The present study extends knowledge on creative tourism in rural areas. It was unclear from previous research how features of creative tourism, such as risk of commodification, play out in rural areas of developing countries. The study built on theoretical overlaps which suggest that creative tourism may improve the potential of community-based tourism. Literature suggested that creative tourism may address three issues plaguing community-based tourism: (1) lack of financial resources could be circumvented with intangible heritage; (2) loss of cultural identity could be reversed by sparking interest for culture; (3) power relations between hosts and guests could be rebalanced by repositioning locals from servant to teacher. These theoretical overlaps were explored in the context of five Balinese villages using a microethnographic approach with participant observations and expert interviews. Findings from this study partly confirm and extend the theoretical synergies. Furthermore, a new synergy, increasing enthusiasm for intercultural exchange, and one negative interaction, intangibility as a differentiator, were found. Findings also revealed conditions for success in developing creative tourism in a community-based tourism context. In sum, we contribute the conclusion that creative tourism in rural areas is promising under certain conditions.     

Local community perceptions of disaster tourism: the case of L'Aquila,Italy

Despite increasing research in dark tourism, few attempts have been made to explore local community perceptions of becoming the object of the dark tourist gaze, an issue that is of particular relevance at disaster sites given the potential sensitivity of local people to the intrusion of tourists in the aftermath of a disaster. This paper addresses this significant gap in the literature. Based on research undertaken in L'Aquila, an Italian city that in April 2009 suffered a devastating earthquake, it explores the responses of members of the local community to their city becoming a dark (disaster) tourism destination. In so doing, it reveals an evolving response towards tourism that not only contradicts traditional understandings of resident perceptions of tourism, but also points towards how appropriate responses to disaster tourism might support the disaster recovery process.     

Understanding the changing Intangible Cultural Heritage in tourism commodification: the music players’ perspective from Lijiang,China

ABSTRACT

While Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) emerges as a new topic in the fields of heritage studies and tourism studies, the changeability of ICH in tourism commodification is still under-researched. The tension between protection and commodification of ICH is intensified when ICH is regarded as a heritage to protect and a resource for commodification, such as in the case of China. With a musical ICH element in Lijiang, China as the case, this paper applies a Critical Heritage Studies approach to investigate the values and components of ICH from the perspective of the music players. From both the diachronic and synchronic dimensions, the research shows that the players construct the values of their ICH in a subject, diverse and dynamic process. The less- and the more-commodified forms of performance are not clearly differentiated; rather, they are regarded as equally important to realise players’ dynamic and subjective needs. Provided practitioners can engage with their ICH freely, commodification can be seen as an indispensable form of the ICH-making process. This paper aims to reveal the dynamism of ICH, to rethink the commodification of ICH, and to rethink the relationship between the commodification and the making of ICH from a critical approach.