Option Framing and Product Feature Recommendations: Product Configuration and Choice

When configuring a customized product, consumers must decide which product features to include. While many times firms allow consumers to add features to a base item (hereinafter referred to as additive option framing), it is also possible in some settings to remove undesired features from a fully equipped product (subtractive option framing). At the same time, companies not only provide different option‐framing formats, but also include recommendations from different sources such as what other customers have chosen previously or what is recommended by the company. This research provides evidence from two field experiments using a German car manufacturer's online configurator that customer recommendations in an additive option‐framing format affect customer spending equally well as subtractive option framing. A follow‐up experiment reveals that customer recommendations lead to increased positive thoughts about the recommended option, which stimulates consumers’ intention to buy the final product.     

The Impact of Attribute Importance in the Effects of Option Framing on Choice: Budget Range and Justification as Moderators of Loss Aversion

Loss aversion or an endowment‐based explanation clearly predicts that subtractive option framing (i.e. deleting mode or starting from a full model) will have a stronger effect on choice than additive option framing (i.e. adding mode or starting from a base model). This research examines whether the differential effects of option framing (additive vs. subtractive) on choice vary depending on the importance of attributes that constitute the defaults. Furthermore, this research proposes that consumers’ budget range and justification for choice serve to moderate the differential effects of option framing on choice.     

Decision Making by Low‐Literacy Consumers in the Presence of Point‐of‐Purchase Information

Low‐literacy consumers face disadvantages when making product choices. This article presents the results of two studies designed to explore differences in decision‐making behavior across consumer literacy levels, focusing on consumers’ ability to evaluate information in print ads and product packaging. The authors demonstrate that the presence of a visual decision aid at the point of purchase can improve choice for low‐literacy consumers.     

It’s all in the mindset: Effects of varying psychological distance in persuasive messages

The current research shows that the persuasive impact of messages can be maximized if their framing is matched to where target consumers are in their decision making process at the time they evaluate the message. Results from two experimental studies show that consumers who are in the predecisional phase of decision making are more likely to be persuaded by messages framed using psychologically distant orientation (i.e., focusing on the future or targeting a distant other), whereas consumers who are in the postdecisional phase are more likely to be persuaded by messages using psychologically close orientation (i.e., focusing on the present or targeting a close other). Evidence of the process through which these effects occur is provided by showing that consumers in a pre- versus postdecisional mindset identify their actions in terms of the actions?? high- versus low-level identities, respectively.     

The influence of children on parental purchases during supermarket shopping

Children are assuming larger roles in household consumer decisions and have also emerged as independent consumers, thus forming an increasingly powerful market segment. Children can be seen as forming, first, a primary market; second, as influencers on their parents’ decision making; and third, as potential future adult consumers. The second role is the main focus of this paper, centring on supermarket purchases. Using focus groups and in‐depth interviews, this study explores the influence of children on supermarket shopping. Participants included parents and children of families in Midlothian, Scotland. The results showed that children have a significant influence on supermarket product purchases. The factors which influence children's product preferences are analysed, and their ability to relay their choices to their parents is considered.     

How the Temporal Framing of Energy Savings Influences Consumer Product Evaluations and Choice

Consumer interest in behavior that is good for the environment is increasing, but actual behavior consistent with this objective has not risen accordingly. This may in part be due to consumers not realizing that their environmentally protective behaviors may have tangible future benefits for them. These studies examine the influence of message frames and a consumer's propensity to think about the future for products that have future benefits. More specifically, these studies examine how consumers respond to temporal frames of savings on product packaging for energy efficient products. Two studies suggest that the temporal framing of savings can influence product choice, purchase intentions, attitudes, and perceptions of savings. The results indicate that future‐oriented consumers are likely to have more positive evaluations when savings are framed in the distant future compared to the near future. In addition, there is a mediating effect of perception of savings. These experiments provide information of interest to marketers and researchers regarding the influence of temporal frames and a consumer's temporal orientation on products that have future benefits.     

Compromise and attraction effects in food choice

Food choices are being implicated as a key driver in the rising rates of obesity, as well as associated with other health problems that impact both individuals and society as a whole (Cawley and Meyerhoefer). Calorie listings, whether provided on menus or packaged goods, increase consumer's awareness of the calories in potential food choices and, as a result, make consumers more likely to evaluate a product relative to others in the choice set based on this attribute (e.g. choosing a higher or lower calorie option). In this research, we explore whether the provision of calorie information, when presented in the context of other food options, will result in (1) compromise effects, whereby individuals select intermediate (or middle) options in a choice set, and (2) attraction effects, whereby individuals gravitate towards items that are similar to others but also dominate these items in the choice set. In two experimental studies we find evidence for the compromise effect and the attraction effect. These findings extend work demonstrating that the context in which food decisions occur can impact choice, and builds on existing knowledge regarding the consequences of providing calorie information for food items. Although most work has shown that making calories salient has a beneficial impact on the accuracy of consumer calorie estimates and food choice, in this work we show that the compromise and attraction effects – two well‐established findings in decision‐making literature – can actually shift consumers to either higher or lower calorie options. This carries important implications for consumers making choices in information‐rich choice environments.     

Food choice: student consumers' decision‐making process regarding food products with limited label information

Food label information theoretically facilitates consumer decision‐making and food choice, but the extent to which consumers actually use this information during decision‐making is a subject of considerable debate. Therefore, this study focused on the importance of label information in student consumers' decision‐making process when exposed to limited label information food in a cafeteria environment. Because of a paucity of research in this area, a qualitative research approach that was exploratory in nature was used, accompanied by semi‐structured interviewing and a vignette. Undergraduate students from the North‐West University, Potchefstroom Campus, in South Africa served as the target population. The findings suggest that internal and product‐related strategies are applied when food choices are made whereby the importance of label information only features in the latter strategy. Student consumers with a label interest were more inclined to use label information strategies in the absence of complete label information to base food choice on. Those with a lack of label interest made use of alternative strategies using product and personal‐related information, such as freshness and product knowledge to make decisions. The decision‐making process was more complex because of insufficient label information and product appearance, and thus previous experiences and habitual purchasing became more important to participants. Student consumers should be supported to make healthier food choices through food manufacturers supplying cafeteria products with more complete label information and by providing students with the knowledge to use label information correctly through educational programmes.     

Consumer choices under product option framing: Loss aversion principles or sensitivity to price differentials?

The effects of options framing can be theoretically explained by loss aversion principles as well as by potential alternative explanations (e.g., sensitivity to price differentials). This paper examines the interaction effects between option framing and two types of cognitive constraints (availability of cognitive resources and additional redundant product information) on consumer choices for adding or deleting optional product features. In the process, the research attempts to provide empirical support for one theoretical model (e.g., loss aversion principles) versus the other (e.g., sensitivity to price differentials). The results support the hypotheses that consumers choose a higher number of product options when starting from a fully loaded model than from a base model, and that this effect is magnified when consumers make choices under high cognitive constraints. In essence, the results empirically support the theoretical premise of the effects of option framing being driven by loss aversion principles than by diminished sensitivity to price differentials. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Material Distortion of Economic Behaviour and Everyday Decision Quality

Misleading information and unfair commercial practices have to be viewed against the background of what consumers otherwise do, i.e., what their purchase decisions look like when no misleading information or no unfair commercial practices are in place. This article provides some of this background by studying how consumers sample information when making an in-store purchase decision. This was done by an eye-tracking study which reveals to what extent consumers succeed in purchasing the products that best meet their purchase intentions when only a representative amount of misleading information is present. The study shows that decisions were suboptimal in relation to what the consumers claimed they wanted to purchase. Only in one product category did consumers in this study actually look at products that were slightly better than average, and as a result, they mainly selected products that were just as often poor as good. If the proportion of bad purchase decisions based on misleading information is small enough, perhaps it might be better to direct the authors’ attention to other ways of improving the decision environments that consumers encounter. In addition, the eye-tracking study provides some insight into how consumers sample information when making an in-store purchase decision. The present data show that consumers invested on average of less than 1 s to look at products.     

What really matters in attraction effect research: when choices have economic consequences

Researchers have recently strongly questioned the robustness of the attraction effect, according to which adding a decoy option to an existing choice set affects consumers’ choice behavior. Tying in with this debate, we identify the persistent use of hypothetical choices in the domain to be a major shortcoming in attraction effect research. In an experiment on the attraction effect with a realistic choice setting that fosters external validity, we manipulate the choice framing by contrasting hypothetical choices with binding choices that entail economic consequences. We find the attraction effect to be much stronger when decisions are binding, underlining the effect’s usefulness as a marketing tool.     

To Justify or Not to Justify: The Role of Anticipated Regret on Consumers’ Decisions to Upgrade Technological Innovations

Prior research suggests that adoption decisions are primarily based on product features and experiential opportunities, like trial and observation. Our research follows inquiries that identify anticipated regret (AR) as an emotion integral to consumer decision making. Prior research and current retailing practice assume that AR can be alleviated by compelling product attribute-based rationales for immediate purchase. These rationales often take the form of direct attribute comparisons between the current best and the future technologies. Counter-intuitively, we find that giving consumers attribute-based justifications for immediate purchase produces a uniform level of AR and purchase delay regardless of the perceived rate of innovation (PRI). However, under conditions of low PRI and no justification, AR decreases significantly. A clear implication of our findings is that firms marketing current technology should not rush to provide consumers with justifications for immediate upgrade since such communications will remind consumers of what they might miss if they adopt now, resulting in increased AR and purchase delays. Instead, we suggest that retailers focus promotional efforts on highlighting the hedonic benefits consumers experience by adopting today.     

The time-harried shopper: Exploring the differences between maximizers and satisficers

Schwartz and his colleagues have proposed individual differences in consumer decision goals. Maximizers are those who always strive to make the best possible decision, whereas satisficers are those who are usually willing to settle for a “good enough” option. In this study, we explore the influence of the maximizing trait in situations where consumers have to make quick purchase decisions. The context for our empirical study is online gift purchases made under a time constraint. The results support our predictions that maximizers (vs. satisficers) engage in more prepurchase browsing behavior and also perceive more decision time pressure. Furthermore, these effects are moderated by the size of the available choice assortment. The results also show that maximizers are more likely to change their initial time-constrained choices if given the opportunity to do so. We discuss the implications of the research for the study of individual differences in consumer behavior and also for customizing retail sales and Internet marketing tactics based on buyer segmentation.     

Besting the status quo: the effect of abstract versus concrete mindsets on emotional trade-off difficulty and avoidant coping behavior

Building on past emotional trade-off difficulty and construal level research, we investigate the conditions under which consumers engage in avoidant coping behavior to reduce negative emotions that arise from trading off valued attributes (e.g., quality and price). Results from three studies offer evidence that an abstract (vs. concrete) mindset systematically decreases avoidant coping behavior (e.g., the selection of a status quo option) by reducing the intensity of the negative emotion consumers experience. This effect replicates across construal level manipulations and product categories. Thus, in addition to the harmful effects of negative emotions and coping behavior on consumer choice identified in past research, we find that an abstract (vs. concrete) mindset can help consumers make better (i.e., more normative) choices. Together, these findings have implications for marketers of new or unfamiliar products as well as products that are not incumbents or category leaders (i.e., status quo options) when consumers face difficult trade-offs.     

Exploring Postconsumption Guilt and Pride in the Context of Sustainability

This research explores the feelings of guilt and pride experienced by consumers after a purchase decision that involves issues of environmental and social sustainability. Through a multi‐method design, the authors examine key dimensions that influence the process of emotional appraisal, illustrate the characteristics of appraisals of guilt/pride and investigate the consequences that emotions have on future choices. In this exploratory research, when a purchase decision includes an ethical dilemma, consumers were found to express guilt or pride even when the purchase is not intentional, i.e. forced by circumstances. Moreover, the study explores how emotions experienced after decisions may have a positive influence on the future purchase of sustainable alternatives. Finally, the paper proposes a new model that describes the process of emotional appraisal and reports on a number of dimensions that were found to lead to guilt and pride. The insights presented extend knowledge of two key consumer emotions and present important implications for practitioners promoting ethical products.     

Combined influence of selective focus and decision involvement on attitude–behavior consistency in a context of memory‐based decision making

Marketers often use salient stimuli to draw consumers' attention to a specific brand in the hope that a selective focus on the brand increases the sales of this brand. However, previous studies are inconsistent concerning the impact that selectively focusing on a specific brand has on final brand choice. To offer an explanation for these inconsistent results, this paper introduces decision involvement as a moderator of the relation between selective focus and attitude–decision consistency. Two studies indicate that selectively focusing on a not preferred alternative indeed alters choice decisions, but only when decision involvement is low. Study 1 further shows that this interaction effect between selective focus and involvement takes place in the selection rather than the brand consideration stage. By introducing level of processing along with decision involvement, Study 2 shows that the interaction effect emerges even in limited processing conditions. The study also reconciles different explanations for the negative effect of selective focus on attitude–behavior consistency. Selectively focusing on a not preferred choice option when consumers are low involved and use limited processing seems to lead to inconsistent choices because of an increased accessibility of the focal option, whereas selective focus on a not preferred option when consumers are low involved and use deep processing lead to inconsistent choices because of attitude polarization. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Ethical Consumers Among the Millennials: A Cross-National Study

Using two samples drawn from contrasting developed and developing countries, this investigation considers the powerful, unique Millennial consumer group and their engagement in ethical consumerism. Specifically, this study explores the levers that promote their ethical consumption and the potential impact of country of residence on cause-related purchase decisions. Three distinct subgroups of ethical consumers emerge among Millennials, providing insight into their concerns and behaviors. Instead of being conceptualized as a single niche market, Millennials should be treated as a collection of submarkets that differ in their levels of awareness of ethical issues, consider discrete motives when making consumption decisions, and are willing to engage in cause-related purchasing to varying degrees. These findings have several critical implications for theory and practice.     

Positively versus negatively framed product attributes: The influence of involvement

Previous studies have shown that the positive framing of a meat product attribute (i.e., 75% lean) results in more positive evaluation of the product than its presumed equivalent negative framing (25% fat). Other framing studies, particularly those dealing with health messages, show mixed results, although there is a tendency in favor of negative framing. Involvement has been hypothesized to account for these conflicting results, in that under high‐involvement conditions, negative framing has been found to be superior, with positive framing superior under low‐involvement conditions. This article replicates the original meat product study with respect to product attribute framing, and extends this by analyzing the data with respect to subjects' involvement in dietary fat decisions. The study also explores the relationship between framing effects and the influence of the frame on some decision‐making reference point. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Small‐Dollar Credit Lending: The Effect of Financial Burden on Personal Asset Misvaluation

Small‐dollar credit lenders offer consumers quick access to cash in the form of products, such as pawn loans. The consumers who tend to use these small‐dollar credit products are more likely to face financial burden and potential for default—particularly when loan‐to‐value ratios are high. However, the cognitive effects of financial burden can impair financial decision making. If financial literacy educators are to empower consumers, more consumer‐centric evidence is necessary to determine how small‐dollar credit consumers make decisions when purchasing loans. One critical decision consumers make is accepting how lenders value their assets in exchange for credit. Three lab studies assess how consumers facing financial burden value their own assets. We find that, due to cognitive constraints of financial burden, consumers can undervalue functional assets and overvalue symbolic assets. Importantly for financial literacy efforts, however, we show that framing a symbolic asset in terms of other‐benefit construal helps attenuate asset overvaluation.     

Risk‐taking propensity in supplier choice: Differences by sex and decision frame in a simulated organizational buying context

Past research concerning decision framing has found that buyer's choices tend to be risk averse for decisions framed as a gain and risk seeking for choices framed as a loss. Attribution theory suggests that women may be less likely to take risk than men when faced with similar decision‐making problems. The present study sought to determine whether there would be differences between men and women with respect to their supplier choices based on how the purchasing decision was framed. Two experiments were conducted: one using a price‐based purchasing scenario and the other using a price‐based and a quality‐based purchasing scenario. For the price‐based scenario women tended to make more risky supplier choices than men when the purchasing decision was framed as a loss, and less risky supplier choices than men when the purchasing decision was framed as a gain. No differences between the sexes were found for the quality‐based scenario. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.