A framework to account for the tourism carbon footprint at island destinations

Given concerns over greenhouse gases and the role of tourism in generating such environmental externality, a consistent carbon measurement framework is needed. This paper combines principles derived from production and consumption accounting measures to better allocate the responsibility for carbon emissions. Utilizing a boundary that includes domestic tourism expenditure, inbound tourism expenditure, and local spending associated with outbound travel, this paper (a) proposes a framework to measure the domestic total carbon effect and foreign-sourced effect, and (b) applies the analytical framework to Taiwan. The empirical study indicates that the carbon emissions for domestic tourism industries, international aviation, and imports accounted for 47%, 28% and 25% of the tourism carbon footprint. It is suggested that an island's dependence on both aviation and international trade leads to a larger share of emissions outside their geographic territory with respect to tourism development.     

The dynamics of tourism’s carbon footprint in Beijing,China

Abstract

Beijing is an important hub for global tourism, but the extent of tourism’s contribution to Beijing’s carbon footprint remains unclear. We integrated an environmentally extended multiregional input–output model and the tourism satellite account in a study to estimate the dynamics of Beijing’s tourism-related carbon footprint in the post-financial crisis period. Our findings indicate that from 2007 to 2012, whereas the carbon footprint of inbound tourists in Beijing steadily decreased, that of domestic tourists increased. The composition of carbon footprints for the consumption activities of inbound and domestic tourists differed substantially. We also traced the spatial distribution of carbon sources associated with tourism consumption in Beijing. In light of our findings, we offer recommendations to target the adoption of low-carbon consumption patterns by domestic tourists, and energy optimization of service suppliers by increasing energy use efficiency and the renewable energy ratio. In addition, we recommend that public and government should seek to lower energy costs and reduce carbon emissions throughout the life cycle of commodities. We conclude that the government and tourism authorities should actively promote carbon and wider environmental awareness, and that producers must seek to improve the efficiency of their energy use by reducing carbon emissions at source.     

The water footprint of tourism in Spain

This study complements the water footprint (WF) estimations for Spain, incorporating insights of the process analysis and input–output (IO) analysis. We evaluate the virtual (both blue and green consumed) water trade of agricultural and industrial products, but also of services, especially through tourism, for a country in which more than 10% of the gross domestic product (GDP) derives from this activity. We use domestic and import disaggregated tables in the agro-alimentary activities, based mainly on national agrarian, industrial, services and trade statistics. In order to obtain import coefficients, water data and IO tables of the main trade partners are used to reproduce the technology of these economies. Results show that 16% of the Spanish exports are due to foreign tourism, thus the water footprint of foreign tourism in Spain is 3.7 km³. Finally, we compare reductions in total tourism expenditure and the domestic and global water footprint of tourism using four scenarios.     

Overcoming information asymmetry in tourism carbon management: The application of a new reporting architecture to Aotearoa New Zealand

Responding to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Paris Climate commitments are urgent priorities facing many governments. Meeting these commitments will require new industry management architectures that align measures of progress (economic, environmental, human and social) with government structures, datasets, and reporting. Comprehensive emissions quantification and reduction targets for tourism must be a part of this new architecture. In this paper we propose a comprehensive Tourism Carbon Information System (TCIS), comprising four essential information components: national tourism carbon footprint, the carbon-economic linkage, drivers and decarbonization progress, and benchmarking. The TCIS is then tested and applied to Aotearoa New Zealand (2007–2013) to track tourism carbon performance and its decarbonization speed, compared to the national average across sectors. This critical information sheds light on future growth in tourism relative to the national greenhouse gas inventory and establishes the required mitigation trajectory for destinations to move onto a sustainable emissions pathway.     

Tourism carbon footprint inventories: A review of the environmentally extended input-output approach

Environmentally extended input-output models have emerged as a new macro level approach to compile tourism carbon footprint inventories. Set against the traditional bottom-up method, this paper explains how environmentally extended input-output models can assist to address multiple aspects of tourism carbon management, and to review current applications for the system boundary issue, identifying variations due to carbon footprint definition, data, and the economic model itself. Recommendations are made on improving consistency of application through the tourism satellite account framework and the treatment of embedded emissions of imports. Last, we propose an agenda to integrate its procedure into national systems linking the sectoral carbon emissions of tourism with international climate commitments and progressing implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals.     

Managing tourism emissions through optimizing the tourism demand mix: Concept and analysis

Carbon mitigation strategies are an urgent and overdue tourism industry imperative. The tourism response to climate action has been to engage businesses in technology adoption, and to encourage more sustainable visitor behaviour. These strategies however are insufficient to mitigate the soaring carbon footprint of tourism. Building upon the concepts of optimization and eco-efficiency, we put forward a novel carbon mitigation approach, which seeks to pro-actively determine, foster, and develop a long-term tourist market portfolio. This can be achieved through intervening and reconfiguring the demand mix with the fundamental aim of promoting low carbon travel markets. The concept and the analytical framework that quantitatively inform optimization of the desired market mix are presented. Combining the “de-growth” and “optimization” strategies, it is demonstrated that in the case study of Taiwan, great potential exists to reduce emissions and sustain economic yields. The implications for tourism destination managers and wider industry stakeholders are discussed.     

A critical review of methods for tourism climate change appraisal: life cycle assessment as a new approach

This paper reviews existing approaches to assessing tourism sustainability, especially its contribution to climate change. It assesses ecological footprint analysis, environmental impact assessment and input–output analysis but finds them inaccurate and unreliable. It goes on to argue that life cycle assessment (LCA) is a more promising tool for tourism climate change impact assessment, highlighting important areas where LCA application can contribute towards better understanding of tourism's role in global climatic changes. To demonstrate the applicability of the LCA methodology, a case study of a short weekend holiday trip is presented. Related greenhouse gas emissions are measured comparing LCA and alternative carbon footprint calculation methods. The comparison demonstrates markedly different results. The reasons for the discrepancy along with the potential of LCA to estimate the “indirect” carbon contribution of the holiday trip's components are discussed. A key feature of the LCA calculation is that for short-haul trips the proportional impact of accommodation-related emissions is shown to be larger than in earlier calculations, while transport impacts are reduced.     

The role of holiday styles in shaping the carbon footprint of leisure travel within the European Union

Leisure travel within the European Union (EU) contributes significantly to the carbon footprint of global tourism. Distance travelled is a main factor in this impact, but some of its determinants remain unexplored. We examined the role of tourists' holiday preferences in shaping the carbon footprint of leisure travel within the EU by calculating demand and impact indicators associated with eight holiday styles. We find a substantial and equivalent carbon footprint for visiting relatives, nature tourism and sea, sun and sand tourism, but a higher carbon intensity of travel per trip for the latter. This is due to widespread demand for sea, sun, and sand tourism despite the concentration of destinations in Southern Europe. Furthermore, international travel within the EU is on average three times more carbon intensive than domestic travel. Our insights suggest that tourists’ holiday preferences can be leveraged for the sustainable development of leisure travel within the EU.     

离岸岛屿目的地旅游交通能耗与CO_2排放测算——以海口市为例

离岸岛屿目的地旅游交通能耗与排放的测算能更加清晰地反映旅游交通、乘飞机旅行造成的环境影响。国内现有的旅游业能耗与排放的测算几乎都使用的是国外5年甚至10年前的经验参数。文章采用自下而上法,最大限度地使用符合我国实际的各种交通方式能耗及排放强度的关键参数,并通过大量的实地调研,细化旅游交通组织,较为准确地测算了我国第二大岛海南岛首府海口市2011年旅游交通的能源消耗与CO2排放量。结果表明,2011年海口市旅游交通能耗为27.40PJ(皮焦,1皮焦等于1015焦),占当年全市总能耗的22.10%;旅游交通CO2排放总量为2.06Mt(兆吨,1兆吨等于106吨)。对于离岸岛屿旅游目的地而言,无烟产业的定论被打破,旅游业正在或已经成为海口市重点用能产业。离岸岛屿目的地旅游业为应对气候变化和节能减排,应设法延长游客的停留天数、减少进出往返的飞行次数;并在充分研究论证的基础上,适时考虑开征设立航空排放税、旅游环境税或生态补偿基金等。鉴于旅游交通等旅游能耗统计基础薄弱,建议组建专业化的旅游能源统计机构,切实加强旅游能耗统计管理。     

Scenario analysis of tourism's water footprint for China's Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region in 2020: implications for water policy

Based on the life cycle footprint analysis method, this paper undertakes a comprehensive assessment of tourism-related direct and indirect water consumption under four counterfactual tourism scenarios in China's Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei metropolitan region (Jing-Jin-Ji), which has been increasingly constrained by extreme water stress. Food consumption appears to have a major impact on the tourism water footprint (WF) such that high calorie-dominated diets are nearly five times more water intensive than vegetable diets for a typical foreign tourist. It is necessary to design specific policy to improve water-use efficiency in upstream agricultural production, in parallel with reduced high-calorie food intake in tourism products supply. Furthermore, transport mode is found to have significant impacts on domestic tourist WF due to the stark variation in water embodied in upstream fuel production and supply. Forecasts for tourism's WF under low and high scenarios suggest that tourism may account for a considerable proportion of total water use in Jing-Jin-Jiby 2020. Specifically, tourism patterns appear to be a determining factor influencing water consumption across different scenarios. It is argued that water policy needs to emphasise water-use efficiency to raise awareness of tourist WF by differentiating water prices for various purposes and segments of the tourism consumer market.     

Accounting for the carbon associated with regional tourism consumption

This paper examines the carbon footprint associated with tourism spending in a regional economy. Using an input–output framework, the method adopted permits an analysis of the carbon embodied in both domestically produced and imported goods and services consequent on tourism consumption in the region. In this way the analysis comprises a statement of environmental externalities which can be set beside a developing Tourism Satellite Account (TSA) framework and which also provides useful information on selected externalities associated with tourism consumption.     

The national tourism carbon emission inventory: its importance,applications and allocation frameworks

A credible national tourism emission inventory is a key to the effective carbon management of tourism activities. Currently, there are no guidelines that define the scope and boundaries for evaluating national tourism emissions and great variations exist in research methodologies, leading to confusion and misuse of these measures. This study compares four accounting frameworks, the Production Accounting Principle (PAP), the Kyoto Protocol Framework (KPF), the Consumption Accounting Principle (CAP) and the Tourism Satellite Account Principle (TSAP), for their concepts, calculations, attributions of responsibility and applications in serving different carbon management purposes. We argue that the TSAP inventory is the best framework to calibrate the full-scale environmental externality concerning internal tourism consumption; the PAP inventory is a comprehensive measure for monitoring territorial emissions and forms a base to apply abatement policies toward domestic producers, and the TSAP, PAP and CAP are all valid indicators that monitor the trade-off between economic output and GHGs. A case study of Taiwan is presented.     

Decomposition of tourism greenhouse gas emissions: Revealing the dynamics between tourism economic growth,technological efficiency,and carbon emissions

This study proposes an analytical framework for decomposing the national tourism carbon footprint and carbon efficiency to identify the dynamics between economic growth, technological efficiency, and environmental externality. Using the environmentally extended input–output model and decomposition methods, tourism carbon changes are decomposed into the economic factors of total consumption and purchasing patterns, and the production factors of industry input structure and technological improvement. This macro-level approach provides a basis for 1) assessing whether total tourism emissions increase in direct proportion to tourism consumption over time, 2) tracing the underlying determinants and their effects on tourism emissions expansion and eco-efficiency performance, and 3) comparing the carbon performance of the tourism industry against the national average. Based on the example of Taiwan, the results demonstrate that we are a long way from the goal of using the technological efficiencies of production to offset tourism-based carbon emissions.     

Minimising food miles: issues and outcomes in an ecotourism venture in Fiji

The tourism sector's demand for food, and the distance some food travels, has significant impacts on greenhouse gas emissions and implications for climate change, especially in long haul small island state destinations. This paper describes the development of the concept of food miles, and the many measurement issues involved. It analyses a small island ecotourism project in Fiji where the source, and transport mode, of all food consumed over 35 months was recorded in detail, during which time conscious efforts were made to minimise imported foods and increase island-grown food. In 2008, the share of imported “non-Fiji” food was 18%, by 2010 it was reduced to 5%. On-site production had risen from zero to 15%. Off-island, but Fijian, food accounted for the balance. Food miles were reduced by over 50%; carbon emissions from food transport fell by over 20%. Some problems were encountered by the largely young (average age 27 years), largely UK/US visitors who were unused to “low carbon” diets with reduced meat levels. Ideas are put forward to overcome that challenge, including new/fashionable cooking techniques, and interpreting local food and farming to visitors. Management issues involved in larger scale ventures are outlined.     

A review of research into air transport and tourism: Launching the Annals of Tourism Research Curated Collection on Air Transport and Tourism

This paper launches the Curated Collection of Annals of Tourism Research on air transport and tourism. Starting with a structured and historical review of the literature, the paper then discusses an analytical framework based on microeconomics and economic geography tools to highlight the implications of air transport accessibility for tourism development. Moreover, the paper examines the airline – airport – tourism destination authority systemic relationship. By highlighting key features of each stakeholder, a total of 10,554 related intra- and inter-stakeholder possible relationships are identified. A thorough understanding of these relationships may prove of added value to address conflicts, capitalize on synergies and rejuvenate air transport and tourism in the post COVID-19 business environment to the benefit of all involved stakeholders.     

境外旅游业碳排放研究综述

随着全球“低碳经济”热潮的掀起,旅游业作为减碳的重要部门,其碳排放问题成为全球关注的焦点之一.文章立足旅游碳排放视角,对国外关于旅游业三大主体碳排放的影响、旅游业碳排放的公众认知、旅游碳足迹测度、碳抵消目标及具体措施等研究进行了系统梳理,并据此构建了旅游业碳排放的研究框架,提出旅游碳足迹测度及碳减排等方面值得进一步探讨的问题,深入揭示了国外相关研究动态,并为我国旅游业低碳化发展提供一定的借鉴.     

Interactions between climate change and the tourism sector: Multiple-criteria decision analysis to assess mitigation and adaptation options in tourism areas

Tourism is one of the most climate-sensitive economic sectors, but also a contributor to climate change. With the effects of climate change becoming an increasing concern, the tourism sector must urgently and realistically respond by mitigating its emissions and adapting tourism businesses and destinations to the changing climate conditions. This work presents a generic methodological framework to plan, manage and implement climate change mitigation and adaptation measures in the tourism context. The methodological scheme is based on Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis for prioritizing available options applicable to a defined tourism area. The proposed framework is implemented for Greece, one of the world's most popular tourism destinations, and optimally ranks 18 mitigation and 16 adaptation measures under 4 criteria i.e. environmental benefit, applicability, cost and social acceptance. The analysis indicates that rational energy use, improvement of energy efficiency and water management/saving measures should be primarily put forward for the Greek case.     

Short-haul city travel is truly environmentally sustainable

With rising interest in and concern about climate change and environmental sustainability, and the significance of the tourism industry worldwide, the impact of tourism-related activities and behaviors on the environment has become a key area of research. In particular, transport related to tourism has come under scrutiny for its contribution to the ecological footprint of tourism of a destination, mostly accounted for by the dominance of air travel. This study contributes to research in this area by identifying the types of travel situations in which tourists make environmentally friendly choices about travel modes and, consequently, which types of tourism destinations should seek to develop and promote in order to minimize the environmental impact of the tourist sector on both an individual destination and global scale.     

昆明市四星级酒店住宿产品碳足迹计算与分析

温室气体排放引起的全球变暖已经成为人类面临的重大环境问题。碳足迹基于生命周期评价,对服务或商品所产生的温室气体排放量进行测度。将碳足迹引入旅游研究,对旅游业的重要组成部分——酒店住宿产品进行生命周期评价,构建了酒店住宿产品碳足迹计算模型,并实证于昆明市6家四星级酒店。结果表明:酒店住宿产品碳足迹主要来自运营期,约占整个生命周期的72.71%;来源包括能源消耗、垃圾释放和制冷剂泄露3个方面,其中直接能源消耗约占60.98%;主要影响因素是消耗量和排放系数,酒店规模对碳足迹的影响受到了环境温度等其他因素的扰动,作用并不明显。研究有利于寻找在旅游产品设计、生产和供应等过程中降低温室气体排放的机会,亦可为旅游业的节能减排提供理论支撑。     

Conceptualising a contemporary marketing mix for sustainable tourism

This paper outlines how marketing, though traditionally considered an enemy of sustainability, can play a role in implementing sustainable tourism. It notes the redefinition in 2007 by the American Marketing Association of marketing's aims to consider wider societal issues beyond those of clients and customers. It illustrates how the recognition of the importance of sustainable tourism at all scales of tourism activity provides marketing with an opportunity to pursue sustainability outcomes. We review the strategic tourism marketing planning process and conceptually develop a sustainability tourism marketing model that embeds sustainability considerations at each stage of the planning process. Our proposed model contributes to sustainable tourism theory development and offers a conceptual tool for managing a tourism organisation's ecological and societal footprint on the supply side and a critical opportunity for transforming consumer decision-making on the demand side, irrespective of tourism scale. A 30-cell matrix is proposed that cross-references a strong set of 10 marketing elements (product, price, promotion, place, participants, process, physical evidence, partnership, packaging and programming) against the questions posed by the triple bottom line of economic factors, the environmental and sociocultural concern, creating a check list of indicators for management purposes.