The Impact of Adopting International Accounting Standards on the Harmonization of Accounting Practices

Over the past few decades numerous organizations have been actively participating in the efforts to improve the comparability of financial reporting. Many studies have discussed the benefits and drawbacks of comparability. This study investigated the affect on the harmonization, or comparability, of accounting practices when a sample of companies choose to use international accounting standards (IASs) when preparing financial reports.This study analyzed trends in the I index, a measure of concentration for the use of a particular accounting practice introduced by van der Tas, to determine if the choice of accounting methods by a sample of Swiss companies became more aligned with a sample of companies from three other countries. The study included a control sample of Swiss companies that did not switch from reporting using local Swiss standards during the same time period, 1988 through 1995. Four accounting practices were included; depreciation, inventory, financial statement cost basis, and consolidation practices. The practices used were compared with a sample of companies from three countries; Japan, the UK, and the US.The results indicated that across the 8-year period, the majority of the I indices comparisons were positive and statistically significant. However, the results did not support that these increases were due primarily to the adoption of IASs.     

Smoothing Mechanisms in Defined Benefit Pension Accounting Standards: A Simulation Study*

The accounting for defined benefit (DB) pension plans is complex and varies significantly across jurisdictions despite recent international convergence efforts. Pension costs are significant, and many worry that unfavorable accounting treatment could lead companies to terminate DB plans, a result that would have important social implications. A key difference in accounting standards relates to whether and how the effects of fluctuations in market and demographic variables on reported pension cost are “smoothed". Critics argue that smoothing mechanisms lead to incomprehensible accounting information and induce managers to make dysfunctional decisions. Furthermore, the effectiveness of these mechanisms may vary. We use simulated data to test the volatility, representational faithfulness, and predictive ability of pension accounting numbers under Canadian, British, and international standards (IFRS). We find that smoothed pension expense is less volatile, more predictive of future expense, and more closely associated with contemporaneous funding than is “unsmoothed” pension expense. The corridor method and market‐related value approaches allowed under Canadian GAAP have virtually no smoothing effect incremental to the amortization of actuarial gains and losses. The pension accrual or deferred asset is highly correlated with the pension plan deficit/surplus. Our findings complement existing, primarily archival, pension accounting research and could provide guidance to standard‐setters.     

Determinants of Actuarial Valuation Method Changes for Pension Funding and Reporting: Evidence from the UK

This study examines various factors that potentially explain cross‐sectional variations in UK corporate managerial discretion to switch towards a market‐based actuarial pension valuation method for pension funding and reporting purposes. Evidence is based on accounting, actuarial and share market data for an industry‐matched pair sample of 90 UK firms. Consistent with our hypotheses we find that companies have a greater propensity to switch actuarial methods if they use lower discount rates, lower flow funding ratios and sponsor larger pension plans in the pre‐switch valuation year. These findings are consistent with the traditional perspective, which implies that UK corporate switching decisions are explained by characteristics of their defined benefit pension funds. The results run contrary to the findings of earlier US based studies that find that such choices can be explained from an alternative corporate financial perspective.     

The effect of pension accounting on corporate pension asset allocation

We examine the impact of new pension disclosures and subsequent full pension recognition under FRS 17 and IAS 19 in the United Kingdom and SFAS 158 in the United States on pension asset allocation. These standards require recognition of net pension surplus/deficit on the balance sheet and actuarial gains/losses in other comprehensive income. Therefore, these standards introduce volatility into comprehensive income and balance sheets. We identify a disclosure period during which UK companies disclosed all the required data under FRS 17 in the notes without recognition. We also identify a full recognition period starting 1 year before until 1 year after the adoption of FRS 17/IAS 19 (UK) and SFAS 158 (US). We predict and find that UK companies, on average, shifted pension assets from equity to debt securities during both the disclosure and the full recognition periods. We also find that while before the adoption of SFAS 158 US companies maintained a stable allocation to equities and bonds, these companies, on average, shifted funds from equities to bonds around the adoption of SFAS 158. Cross-sectional analysis shows that the shift away from equities is related to changes in funding levels, shorter investment horizons, increased financial leverage, and the expected impact of the new standards on shareholders’ equity.     

Discretionary accounting choices: the case of IAS 19 pension accounting

Based on a sample of 3207 firm-year observations for the years 2005–2013, we investigate how stock-listed companies in France, Germany and the UK use two discretionary choices in their accounting for defined benefit pension plans under International Accounting Standard (IAS) 19 Employee Benefits. We first analyse companies’ decision whether to voluntarily early adopt the equity method of accounting for actuarial gains and losses. Second, we analyse companies’ choice to present pension interest cost and expected return on plan assets, or, in 2013, net pension interest cost, in operating or financial income. Our findings provide evidence that companies’ decisions to early adopt the equity method in 2005, the first year this accounting choice was available, were motivated by short-term effects on equity. Our analyses also indicate that the choice regarding where to present interest cost and expected return on plan assets in the income statement is associated with the resulting effect on Earnings before Interest and Tax. Finally, we document country-specific differences in the use of the discretion provided under IAS 19, suggesting that discretionary pension accounting choices may impede comparability.     

The Measurement of Harmonisation and the Comparability of Financial Statement Items: Within-Country and Between-Country Effects

This paper reports on an analysis of accounting policy choices made by European companies with an international shareholding. The accounting policies analysed in depth in this paper comprise the treatment of goodwill and accounting for deferred taxation. In the paper, the van der Tas comparability index is developed by separating the index into two components relating to the within-country (intra-national) effects of domestic standardisation and the between-country (inter-national) effects of harmonisation. It is shown in this paper that the value of the index may be interpreted as the probability that two companies selected at random will report financial information that is comparable, and that the lowest level of comparability exists when the accounting methods are assumed to be distributed equiprobably over the companies, the outcome of a random selection of accounting policies. The paper also considers the problems of non-disclosure, and a comprehensive ‘disclosure-adjusted’ comparability index is proposed.     

The Valuation of Deferred Taxation: Evidence from the UK Partial Provision Approach

The UK provides a virtually unique environment in which to examine the information content of the partial provision approach to deferred tax accounting. In addition this issue is of particular interest to UK accounting standard setters in the light of trends towards international accounting standard harmonisation. Taking the total amount of deferred taxation to be equal to the partial balance sheet provision plus the potential portion appearing in the notes, this study tests the relationship between these various deferred tax components and market value. It also examines the economic rationale for the potential portion. The study is based on 1,512 company/years from the period 1989–1991. It finds that, while the full amount of deferred taxation is not valued by the market as a liability, there is evidence of the partial balance sheet provision being so valued. There is also evidence that the potential portion is positively related to market value, consistent with its proxying for information about future growth. This result is supported by the positive relation between the potential portion and measures of future capital spending, indicative of an underlying economic rationale for this deferred taxation component. From a regulatory perspective, the study concludes that the main benefit of the partial provision approach is that the balance sheet amount constitutes a reasonably reliable measure of the portion likely to crystallise as a liability, information that would be lost were only the full amount to be disclosed.     

Positive accounting theory,political costs And social disclosure analyses: a critical look

This paper critically reviews the literature seeking to establish evidence for a positive accounting theory of corporate social disclosures. Following Reiter (1998), the paper provides detailed evidence and an illustration of how positive accounting theorists’ attempts to colonize social and environmental accounting research have proved a failure. The paper carefully traces through the original work of Watts and Zimmerman (1978) showing their concern with the lobbying behaviour of large US oil companies during the 1970s. Such companies were argued to be abusing monopolists and likely targets of self-interested politicians pursuing wealth transfers in the form of taxes, regulations and other “political costs". Watts and Zimmerman’s reference to “social responsibility" is shown to be a passing remark, and most likely refers to “advocacy advertising", a widespread practice amongst large US oil companies at that time. Subsequent literature that relies on Watts and Zimmerman to present a case for social disclosures is shown to extend their original arguments. In the process, concern over the “high profits" of companies is shown to diminish, and the notion of political costs is so broadened that it blurs with other social theories of disclosure. Consequently, the positive-accounting-based social disclosures literature fails to provide distinct arguments for self-interested managers’ wealth maximizing. This paper also shows that the empirical evidence gathered to date in support of a positive accounting theory of social disclosures largely fails in its endeavour.     

Towards Some Principles for Intangible Asset Accounting

This paper examines the conceptual issues of intangible asset accounting in the context of recent controversies over the treatment of brand names and goodwill in company accounts. Issues of definition and recognition and the rationale for balance sheet disclosure are considered for goodwill and other intangibles. The implications of capitalising intangibles under accounting models based on present value, net realisable value, current cost and historical cost are examined, and certain principles are proposed. The problem of testing the validity of asset valuation is explored, and a test is developed on the basis of the ‘recoverable amount’ rule of historical cost. This test is demonstrated for two major UK companies.     

The adoption of international accounting standards by small and closely held companies: evidence from Bahrain

This study examines the accounting practices and the degree of adoption of international accounting standards (IASs) by small and closely held companies in Bahrain. It finds that 86% (31) of the 36 companies responding to the questionnaire applied IASs and they considered IASs to be very relevant for them. All firms prepare balance sheets, and the majority prepares income statements and cash flow statements. They also duly audit these statements. The data collected also revealed that the quotient influence on whether or not a firm adopted IAS was exerted by their external auditors. External auditors exerted the greatest influence on getting firms to adopt IASs. Banks and company partners were the primary users of company financial statements; inventories, depreciation, disclosure on financial statements, and the presentation of current assets and liabilities. The main IASs followed by a majority of firms are those pertaining so. Some of the standards were considered totally irrelevant, contrary to the prevailing idea that adoption of IASs creates an information overload for small and closely held companies. The results of this study indicate that a majority of our respondents did not find that it was costly to adopt or interpret IASs. Those few firms that experienced some difficulties sought clarification from their external auditors. About 84% of those who adopted IASs strongly agreed that using IASs improves their organization's ability to financial assistance from the banking sector. Also, about 90% of the respondents fully agreed that IASs help to achieve the objectives and improve the effectiveness of financial reporting.     

向国际财务报告准则过渡对欧洲企业财务报告的影响

本文以巴黎股市CAC 40大股和欧洲其他股市的21家公司为样本,研究了向国际财务报告准则(IFRS)过渡对欧洲上市公司财务报告的影响。研究发现这一影响是有限的和平稳的。首次采用IFRS使样本公司的合并报告净利润平均水平明显提高,权益资本略有减少。总量分析和回归分析均显示:商誉、无形资产、库藏股、汇率变动、资产重估、养老金和金融工具等项目的调整是产生披露差异的主要影响因素,规模较大的企业报告盈利指标调高较多。     

Goodwill under IFRS: Relevance and disclosures in an unfavorable environment

The accounting treatment of purchased goodwill under IFRS has been severely criticized due to the extensive use of fair value accounting. The purpose of this study is to enrich the ongoing debate upon this issue by drawing attention to the market valuation implications of goodwill in a country outside the Anglo-Saxon accounting paradigm, where the application of fair value accounting has been seen as more problematic. The results indicate that, in the case of purchased goodwill, fair value accounting generates relevant accounting numbers but only in companies that comply highly with IFRS disclosure requirements.     

Accounting for Goodwill on Consolidation Before and After AAS 18

The paper examines accounting practices in the treatment of goodwill on consolidation by listed companies in the periods before and after the application of AAS 18. A previous study established that prior to the advent of AAS 18, considerable diversity existed in this area of accounting practice. The accounting profession sought through AAS 18 to seek uniformity in the treatment of goodwill on consolidation. The survey evidence shows there is a high level of non-compliance with this standard, hence substantial diversity continues.     

Sollen nach International Accounting Standards Abschlußaufwendungen aktiviert und eine Schwankungsrückstellung passiviert werden?

The aim of the International Accounting Standards Committee is to formulate and to publish accounting standards to be observed in the presentation of financial statements and to promote their worldwide acceptance and observance. There is only one International Accounting Standard (IAS) which treats a particular industry (IAS 30 for banks); for insurance companies does not exist a specific IAS. An International Accounting Standards ?Insurance“ is being developed at the moment. The discussion of the Steering Committee for the IAS ?Insurance“ regarding special topics, e.g. acquisition costs or the equalisation provision, was recently published in an ?Issues paper“. The objective of this study is to answer the question if acquisition costs should be deferred and amortized over the policy period and if an equalisation provision is allowed in the system of the IAS. For this purpose acquisition costs must be classified as an asset and an equalisation provision must be classified as a liability. In contrast to the standpoint of the Steering Committee this study shows that acquisition costs meet the requirements of the asset definition in the Framework to the IAS and an equalisation provision meets the requirements of the liability definiton.     

How wide is the gap between IASC and U.S. GAAP? impact of the IASC comparability project and recent international developments

The objectives of this paper involve determining the significant areas of difference between International Accounting Standards (IASs) and U.S. GAAP following the IASC’s Comparability Project and the most recent IASC and FASB projects on these issues. In addition, the paper assesses the consistency of U.S. practice with the IASs revised via the Comparability Project. For this purpose, the 1996 annual reports of 38 large multinational U.S. companies are examined and an empirical analysis of reporting practices is carried out. Finally, the remaining gap between IASs and U.S. GAAP is evaluated and policy implications are considered for the IASC and FASB. It is concluded that while there are still some significant issues to be resolved, notably relating to the determination of net profit/loss for the period, research and development, changes in foreign exchange rates, and business combinations, these differences are not insurmountable.     

Harmonisation of Accounting Measurement Practices in the European Community

This study attempts to determine the level of accounting harmonisation in the European Community by examining selected measurement practices from the 1992/93 annual reports of companies from Belgium, Denmark. France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands. Portugal and the UK. Harmonisation is tested using the chi-square statistic and measured using the / index. The chi-square statistic tests for the equality of the proportions of accounting measurement methods across countries. The / index measures the extent of concentration around a particular accounting measurement method. The results reveal that accounting for foreign currency translation of assets and liabilities, treatment of translation differences, and inventory valuation are harmonised, while accounting for fixed asset valuation, depreciation, goodwill, research and development costs, inventory costing, and foreign currency translation of revenues and expenses are not harmonised. The results also demonstrate that the extent of harmonisation is greater among fairness oriented countries than among legalistic countries.     

商誉减值准则的变迁及启示:国际视野与中国实践

近年来,我国商誉减值乱象频发,很多上市公司因计提巨额商誉减值导致出现巨额亏损,引发了众多学者对商誉计量的高度关注。由于经济发展存在较大差异,不同国家的商誉准则也有很大区别。国际会计准则委员会、美国会计准则委员会及中国财政部会计准则委员会对有关商誉后续处理方法的准则规定存在很大不同,而大多数学者仅选取其中两者进行对比分析。纵观三者来看,我国商誉准则的变化受国际及美国会计准则委员会的综合影响较大,值得通过对比和分析来获得启示,为我国未来商誉准则的发展提供参考。     

An Empirical Investigation of Accounting Methods for Goodwill and Identifiable Intangible Assets: 1985 to 1989

Accounting for intangible assets represents one of the more controversial accounting standards issues. This study examines the accounting policies adopted for goodwill and for identifiable intangible assets by a sample of 150 Australian Stock Exchange listed companies over the five-year period 1985 to 1989 inclusive. Findings reveal a general decrease in the diversity of goodwill accounting policies over the study period but the converse for identifiable intangible policies. In particular, an increase in the percentage of companies electing not to amortize identifiable intangibles was found. The study provides evidence to support claims that companies have been recognizing identifiable intangibles to reduce the impact on reported operating profits of the requirement of accounting standards for the amortization of goodwill.     

The impact of different goodwill accounting methods on stock prices: A comparison of amortization and impairment-only methodologies

In March 2020, the IASB issued a discussion paper – ‘Business Combinations – Disclosures, Goodwill and Impairment’ – which discussed, inter alia, whether to introduce a sort of counterreformation of IAS 36 that might lead to the reintroduction of goodwill amortization. Among other things, the IASB, leveraging key findings from academic research, questioned a) the disclosure provided by entities applying IFRS 3 requirements and b) the timing of impairment write-downs and their overal¹l magnitude.The main goal of this study, focusing on a large sample of European listed companies since the adoption of IAS in 2005, is to test the value relevance of goodwill under the current accounting framework and the alternative hypothesis of an amortization regime.Our findings show that the information provided by listed companies to market investors under the current accounting regime (verification at least annually of the recoverability of the value of the goodwill carrying amount through the impairment test) – the level of goodwill before and post impairment, as well as goodwill write downs – is value relevant and contributes to explain the level of the market to tangible book value multiple. On the contrary, simulating the alternative accounting scenario of goodwill amortization, we found that the information conveyed to market investor would not be value relevant, with the amortization itself added back to the multiple. The results support the current accounting framework and indicate that the best way to improve goodwill accounting is by enforcing present rules.This study aims to provide a multidimensional contribution to the current debate within the IASB, leveraging the largest database in Europe.     

Cycles in UK Standard Setting

Observation of UK standard setting between 1970 and 1990 suggests the existence of cyclical patterns. The feature exhibiting the pattern for any topic was the degree of standardisation proposed in documents issued by the Accounting Standards Committee. A model is developed in which the pattern is argued to be caused by the opposition of two forces: a downward force exerted by corporate managers with some professional support; and an upward force exerted by individual senior members of the profession supported by government, press and international influences. The energy to start the cycle comes in the form of a variety of external stimuli. The model is illustrated using five controversial topics: inflation accounting; research and development; deferred tax; merger accounting; and goodwill.