Reviewers,Advertising Regulation and Self-Regulation Special Issue

The growing concern over violence in the media has led to vast amounts of research examining the effects of violent media on viewers. An important subset of this research looks at how humor affects this relationship. While research has considered this subset in television programming, almost no research has explored this in the context of advertising. This paper builds on the little research that exists by examining the effects of combining humor and violence, as well as the theoretical approaches that underlie these effects. A content analysis is conducted to identify the prevalence of violence, humor, and the combination of these elements in a longitudinal sample of Super Bowl commercials (2005, 2007, and 2009). Further, we investigate the relationship between the joint occurrence of humor and violence in ads and ad popularity. We conclude that violent acts are rampant in these commercials and that many acts are camouflaged by the simultaneous presence of humor, especially in the most popular ads.     

Super Bowl ad likeability: Enduring and emerging predictors

US advertisers love the Super Bowl because it reaches a huge and highly receptive audience. One metric that Super Bowl advertisers watch closely is ad likeability as this is correlated with sales success. Tomkovick, Yelkur, and Christians (2001, Journal of Marketing Communications 7: 89–108) studied ad likeability for Super Bowl ads in the 1990s. In this paper, we replicate and extend their research using USA Today's measurement of Super Bowl ad likeability in the decade of the 2000s as our dependent variable of interest. Our findings on 438 Super Bowl ads show that humor, animals, and product category were enduring predictors of ad likeability. Product information and the presence of children in Super Bowl ads were found to be emerging predictors of ad likeability. Most notably, the amount of product information provided in Super Bowl commercials was inversely related to ad likeability. Implications for advertisers are presented, as are conclusions, study limitations and directions for future research.     

A longitudinal analysis of the changing roles of gender in advertising: a content analysis of Super Bowl commercials

Although the prevalence of gender stereotypes in advertising is well established, relatively little research has examined gender stereotypes in the context of Super Bowl that is arguably the most important event in US television advertising. This study systematically examines gender representations across various product categories in Super Bowl commercials over a 20-year period (1990–2009). Our findings detect and discuss shifts in the cultural notions of gender constructed in advertising messages targeting the largest and the most demographically diverse audience in US television. The paper concludes with a discussion of the theoretical and managerial implications of our findings.     

Information content of Super Bowl commercials 2001–2009

Using Resnik and Stern's (1997) method, this study examines the information content of the ads embedded in the telecasts of the largest sporting event in the United States, Super Bowl. The findings of a content analysis of over 400 Super Bowl ads aired from 2001 to 2009 show that each ad contained on an average two informational cues, which are as much informative as other television ads in the United States. The packaging or shape, quality, and performance cues are the three most frequently used informational cues. In addition, think products appeared to contain a more diverse set of informational cues compared to feel products. Practical and theoretical implications and future research directions are discussed.     

“时间总长假设”对广告媒体策划的启示

认知心理学中的“时间总长假设”（Total Time Hypothesis）认为，人们掌握（主要指记忆）一定的信息所需要的时间是基本固定的。当总的时间长度固定时，对于这段时间的分配方式并不影响记忆的效果。本文对这个假设在广告行业中的应用进行了论证。文中所分析的数据采集于对美国观众在2002、2003和2006年进行的有关“超级碗”球赛广告的电话访谈。研究结果显示，当广告的时间总长固定时，广告重复的次数对广告的传播效果没有显著影响，从而印证了时间总长假设。文章对如何在广告媒体策划中应用这一结论也进行了相应的讨论。     

Super returns to Super Bowl ads?

This paper uses a natural experiment—the Super Bowl—to study the causal effect of advertising on demand for movies. Identification of the causal effect rests on two points: 1) Super Bowl ads are purchased before advertisers know which teams will play; 2) home cities of the teams that are playing will have proportionally more viewers than viewers in other cities. We find that the movies in our sample experience on average incremental opening weekend ticket sales of about $8.4 million from a $3 million Super Bowl advertisement.     

The effects of pleasure and arousal on recall of advertisements during the Super Bowl

This study investigates whether pleasure and arousal levels of viewers watching a sports program affect advertisement recall. The results suggest that programs that evoke strong emotional reactions, such as the Super Bowl, may inhibit the recall of advertisements and brands. Specifically, these findings seem to support the Intensity (arousal) theory and may have important implications for advertisers who promote their products or services on sports‐related event programming. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The Practicality of Super Bowl Advertising for New Products and Companies

Abstract

Companies that advertise during the Super Bowl can reach 40 million U.S. households with a 30-second commercial spot, but the cost can exceed $2 million. This research examines Nielsen television ratings and expenses for related commercial spots and suggests that the Super Bowl is not always the best site for introducing new companies or products to the marketplace. ANOVA test results indicate that younger companies may better affect purchase decisions by advertising more frequently during less expensive programming slots.     

The Impact of Violent Content on Pricing of Media Products

Although considerable research exists on the impact of exposure to violence on individual and group behavior, existing research has not examined how violent media are valued by consumers, specifically as it relates to the pricing and promotion of media products. In this study a total of 960 monthly price observations for video games and DVD movies were collected. Pricing data for the month of product launch as well as the months following the launch were compiled and subjected to ANOVA and regression analyses, to determine the role of violent content on both new and pre-owned prices. Consistent with the theoretical framework presented, the results indicate that violence can systematically impact prices, but the impact depends on the medium. In the video game market violent content contributes to a faster rate of price depletion, while in the DVD market it helps new product prices appreciate post-launch. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of the findings for managers, public policy advocates, and researchers.     

No longer violent enough?: Creative destruction,innovation and the ossification of neoliberal capitalism

ABSTRACT

My goal is to suggest that it is useful to distinguish analytically between capital’s primal, often direct violence against bodies and a systemic form of violence that is at the same time reproductive of the capitalist system and directed against its own creations. I suggest that this analytical separation allows us to see that on the one hand capitalist violence is intensifying and with it processes of exploitation, class bifurcation, downward mobility and environmental, political and social degradation. On the other hand, however, capitalism appears to be ossifying as it loses its ability to self-reproduce. The violent act of (periodically) destroying its own creation to make room for new production and formation is becoming stifled and nothing appears capable of blowing up the dead weight of capital that is suffocating living labour. Drawing on the work of David Graeber and Mariana Mazzucato I propose that, paradoxically, it is the logic of the market that causes the stifling of real innovation and thus capitalism’s ability to reproduce. It is in this sense that I claim that capitalism is no longer violent enough.     

Super Bowl advertising: field testing the importance of advertisement frequency,length and placement on recall

This study investigates the effects of length, frequency and pod placement on advertising recall in a non-laboratory setting. Subjects were surveyed the day after Super Bowl XXVIII to determine recall of advertisements shown during the game. The results indicate that length and frequency positively and significantly influence advertisement recall.     

Frank P. Jozsa, Jr. Sports Capitalism: The Foreign Business of American Professional Leagues. Aldershot, Hants, U.K., and Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004. xiv + 316 pp. ISBN 0-7546-4185-6, $99.95 (cloth).

Students of international business will find this a useful andfrustrating book. It is encyclopedic in its coverage and exhaustivelyresearched. Approximately 20 percent of the book’s 316pages consists of notes, while another 10 percent is bibliography.The book is intended for nonspecialists; a glossary includesterms as diverse as economic profit, Hall of Fame, Super Bowl,and work ethic. Of these, only ‘Super Bowl’ appearsin the extremely short, five-and-a-half page index. Jozsa’srole has been to organize this material and bring     

Portrayals of Minorities and Women in Super Bowl Advertising

Portrayals of women and minorities advertising have long been of interest to advertising scholars. While research has found that the overall representation of these groups has increased, some stereotypes persist, and so do questions about the quality and prominence of portrayals. This study examines portrayals of minorities and women in Super Bowl advertising, the main “pop culture” showcase for US advertising. A content analysis of 10 years of Super Bowl ads is conducted and a multinomial logit regression model is employed to delve deeper into the content analysis results. Findings show that while the overall representation of women and various minority groups is strong, a deeper analysis shows that these groups are seldom depicted as primary characters by themselves and that some subtle stereotypes persist. We also find that ads featuring female principal characters are more likely to feature home settings, sexual appeals, emotional messages, and music as a major element and that it is less likely for female (vs. male) celebrities to be used. Minority principal characters are more likely to be celebrities and be included in ads with music or for technical products but are less likely to be included in ads featuring corporate social responsibility messages.     

Narrative,transportation and advertising

An increasing body of research demonstrates that narrative-based communication can be effective in eliciting attitude change, especially when recipients become transported into the narrative. Using data from a national sample of viewers of Super Bowl XLV (2011) or XLVI (2012), this study addresses whether some people are more disposed to be transported by narrative advertising and how they react to it. Evidence is presented to suggest that people differ in their receptivity to narrative messaging and that these differences are significantly related to advertising effectiveness. Managerial implications of this work are discussed.     

Chinese children’s attitudes towards television advertising: truthfulness and liking

This benchmarking study examines Chinese children.s perceived truthfulness of and liking for television advertising in three Chinese cities with different developmental levels of advertising. An in-person survey of 1758 children (ages 6 to 14) was conducted between December 2001 and March 2002 using a structured questionnaire. Results indicate that a majority of children perceive half of the television commercials to be true, although this varies by grade and geography. Children in Beijing perceived television commercials to be more trustworthy than did children in Nanjing and Chengdu. The percentage of children who perceive all commercials to be true declines consistently with grade in all three cities. There is a high proportion of first graders who perceive all commercials to be untrue. The basis for judgement varies predominantly by grade. Children in higher grades depend more on brand and user experience while children in lower grades rely mainly on authority (i.e. parents or teachers). A high proportion of first graders hold both a strong liking and disliking for commercials. These strong feelings towards advertising decreased with grade, being replaced by a marked increase in neutral or indifferent feelings. Gender and level of television viewing do not show a consistent impact on perceived truthfulness and liking for commercials. Perceived truthfulness of television advertising is related positively with liking for commercials.     

Peer socialisation: brand-related bullying in the school classroom

ABSTRACT

This paper details a study of brand-related bullying in a school setting, among children approximately 11–18 years of age during their schooling experience. Defined as ‘repeated oppression, psychological or physical, of a less powerful person by a more powerful one’, authors have found self-reported rates of bullying above 25%. Our goal was to assess the role of brands and branded products in violent peer socialisation through bullying. Depth interviews lasting between 45 and 90 minutes that captured the retrospective reflection of forty-one 18–20-year-old college students were conducted and data were analysed hermeneutically with iterative comparison to discover emerging themes. Our findings suggest branded products were used to maintain existing social hierarchical structures and exclude non-conforming students through both covert and overt violence. We describe the influence strategies used and address strategies for dealing with the ‘unusual’, including the adoption of an alternative aesthetic for clothing selection.     

Competing for consumer memory in television advertising

The purpose of this study is to examine how brand recall and recognition are affected by non-editorial clutter in mega-event broadcasting. Using longitudinal data collected during four years of Super Bowl broadcasts, this study investigates the effects of three different types of television clutter (other ads, on-air promos and TV billboards) and their composite effects on brand memory. The results show that increases in numbers and lengths of other ads and on-air promos negatively affect brand recall and recognition. However, such effect was not found with TV billboards. Theoretical and marketing implications are discussed.     

Comedic violence in advertising: the role of normative beliefs and intensity of violence

Interest in the use of comedic violence in advertising has risen, but the research on this topic has been limited. Past studies have found positive effects of comedic violence in ads, with higher levels of violence increasing positive responses. However, given that the violence depicted in these ads is a violation of social norms, following the Social Norms Theory, it is proposed that individual norm beliefs about violence in advertising could be a significant factor in influencing ad outcome. Using an online panel of general consumers across two experiments, this study revealed that norm beliefs had a positive influence on comedic violence ad responses. In addition, when violence intensities of the ads were varied, individuals with lower norm beliefs responded more positively to low violence ads than high violence ads, whereas individuals with higher norm beliefs did not exhibit different responses to the two violence intensities. Mediation analyses were conducted to test for the underlying mechanisms. As comedic violence advertising may offend audiences, the findings provide targeting and design implications for advertisers interested in this strategy.     

Gender effects on consumers’ attitudes toward comedic violence in advertisements

Abstract

This study examined gender’s effects on attitudes and tendencies to share online ads containing comedic violence. The results show that males enjoyed comedic violence more than females, when the perpetrator of the comedic violence was male, regardless of the victim’s sex; and, when the perpetrator and victim were both female. When the perpetrator and victim were of different sexes, the impact of attitudes toward comedic violence on sharing the ad varied by gender. However, when the victim and perpetrator were of the same sex, there was no significant gender difference in the effects of attitudes toward sharing the ad.