Joshua K. Ingalls, American Individualist: Land Reformer, Opponent of Henry George and Advocate of Land Leasing, Now an Established Mode

A bstract . Joshua K. Ingalls was a member of a particularly cohesive group of 19th century intellectual iconoclasts in America, the individualists. Two controversies made him widely known at the time: the land reform vs. abolition argument before the Civil War, and his attacks on Henry George in the 1880s over the issue of land reform through tax reform or land reform through land leasing under an occupancy and use system of tenure. Ingalls held George failed to understand the "true" nature of capitalism; rent goes to the landlord as capitalist as reward for his investment; the landowning capitalist appropriates this by his dominion over the land. Though Ingalls' argument did not prevail, land leasing, which he advocated, is the form in which some resources are now disposed of, as in grazing rights and mineral exploration on public land, and in oil exploration rights on the continental shelves; and in the disposition of urban sites such as the site of Rockefeller Center and the Chrysler Building in New York (the former to the benefit of Columbia University, the latter Cooper Union, both by legislative action).     

Complexity and the Meaning of Freedom

A bstract . The technological and social complexities and synergistic interdependencies of our times have rendered the individualistic, classical liberal view of freedom all but helpless as a guide to intelligent action. An alternative conceptualization is needed. The instrumentalist view, founded as it is in the principle of the continuity of the life process , provides such an alternative. In contrast with the negative "freedom as the absence of coercion" view of the individualists, the instrumentalist views freedom as a positive power of participation in the framing of rules of right conduct. Such power, in order to be instrumentally effective, must also be founded in the best available warranted knowledge of the potential consequences of alternative patterns of rules. This need for a more expansive and relevant view of freedom comes most forcefully into focus at the interface between powerful, but potentially destructive technologies and the attendant need for their social control.     

Adolph Lowe's Methodological Alternative for Economic Research and Policy

A bstract . Social scientists and philosophers are engaged in a profound re-examination of the foundations of economic science. Among them the economist, Adolph Lowe , opened a new vista. First, in his Economics and Sociology: A Plea for Cooperation in the Social Sciences (1935) he argued compellingly for a unified social science. Lowe introduced there the concept of " instrumental analysis " which he greatly modified in On Economic Knowledge (1965) and applied to a major issue of contemporary economics in The Path of Economic Growth (1976). Instrumental analysis is intended to achieve a system of " political economics ," a theory for deriving one or more paths—a sequence of positions—over which an initial state of an economy can be transformed into a terminal state—a goal itself stipulated by political decision. Instrumental analysis is also used to determine measures of public control to achieve the behavioral pattern suitable to set and keep the system on the goal-adequate trajectory.     

Does economic transformation undermine union collectivism? The case of East German textile workers

There is a widespread hypothesis that union members in East Germany are strongly individualistic, passive and instrumental with regard to their collective interest representation. This article examines the extent to which East German union members can be thus characterised and reveals that people were difficult to classify as pure ‘individualists’ or pure ‘collectivists’.     

Downward influence styles in cultural diversity settings

This study used the cultural value of individualism to explain the direct interpersonal influence behaviour used by Japanese and American expatriates and the indirect structural influence pattern which together have moulded the influence behaviour of Taiwanese managers. As predicted, the collectivists (Japanese expatriates) were found to use more assertiveness, exchange and higher authority strategies than the individualists (American expatriates). Differences in downward influence style between Taiwanese managers in Japanese and in American subsidiaries did reveal the acculturation effects of Japanese and American organizational cultures. Familiarity with local cultural values and language increased the frequency of using influence for Taiwanese managers, but did not afford the Japanese an influence style similar to the Taiwanese.     

Naar aseptische en realistische methoden in de toegepaste statistiek

Summary
Applied statistics is not pure mathematics but the application of suitable methods of mathematical statistics to practical problems.
In choosing the method one should be extremely suspicious in regard to septic methods and give strong preference to realistic methods.
Septic methods are those which by their very nature introduce properties alien to the magnitudes concerned e.g. addition of non-additive variables, differentiation of stochastic variables, stochastic treatment of indeterminate variables, etc. Realistic methods are those based on a preliminary analysis of the practical problem which should bring to light the essential mutually independent variables controlling the outcome of the problem. Undue simplification at the cost of the accuracy required in actual practice should be avoided; especially weak correlations between variables shown by the deductive analysis as being essentially mutually independent should be discarded.
On the other hand the mathematical treatment should be as simple and direct as possible.
The professional mathematician can become a real danger if he wants to guide the application of mathematical statistics to certain fields of applied science in which he is not sufficiently specialised and experienced. Contrariwise, if he acquires this knowledge in business, the highest positions are open to him.     

Comments on Four Papers on Economics and Human Heterogeneity

A bstract .   These comments focus on some issues raised in the papers by Dimand, Peart and Levy, Cot, and Leonard. These papers are fascinating, but not without weaknesses. It is argued that Dimand's presentation of what he calls the "general principle" of classical economics is misconceived. There is a confusion in this paper between the classical view of equal capacity and the much newer concept of equally rational actual performance. Peart and Levy discuss the idea of unequal capacity for pleasure in Edgeworth, but do not draw a link back to the idea in J. S. Mill of different qualities of pleasure. Cot and Leonard provide informative accounts of the American eugenic movement and its links to progressivism, but with an insufficient degree of distinction between the various positions and agendas that were concerned.     

Formulating Hypotheses Graphically in Social Research

This article explores the proposition that the appropriate use of suitable forms of graphic communication can improve the formulation and presentation of hypotheses in quantitative social science research. The creative nature of scientific diagrams is discussed and the technological advances in computer graphic media are seen as part of a visual revolution which is markedly changing not only the way we see things but also the way we think and do things today. Brief historical views on the use of hypotheses and diagrammatic languages in science are given. The restricted use of graphic communication tools in social research academic documents is discussed and the importance of using well-designed data graphics in the production and transmission of scientific knowledge is highlighted. Hypotheses are conceptualised and their importance within social research is emphasised. A methodological approach for formulating hypotheses graphically is proposed based on the use of three types of language: notation, statement (ordinary language) and diagram. Some criteria are suggested for the selection of diagram type dependent on the related variables. Several examples are given covering the different models proposed.     

工具经济边际与生命科学宣言

三大事件表明工具经济发展边际的到来,决定人类经济形态由此走向目的经济即生命科学经济时代。其意义不仅在于工具经济所面临的各种危机可以得到有效克服,而且可以明晰中国经济转型升级的基本方向。实际上,生命科学已经对人类经济文明起到了引领作用,原因就在于人的需求是无限的。更为重要的是,只有到了生命科学经济时代,资源不再仅仅只有加工、生产和耗费的价值,其内在的多重价值都能得到充分的展现,地球生态也由此才能取得可持续发展的效应。而东方文明,由于其系统思维和"抽象具体"的思辨逻辑,以及在生命科学范畴内的研究成果,将引领人类经济文明未来的发展方向。     

TOWARDS A CRITICAL MANAGEMENT SCIENCE

This article examines the work of a number of writers who have attempted critical assessments of management science. Each writer has focused on specific areas that any critical management science would need to consider, viz. the origins of values, relations between organizations and society, the historical development of organizations, and the relationship between management science and developments in the capitalist mode of production. In addition these writers have declined to accept existing modes of organization as given, and have avoided the assumption that management science is inherently, or necessarily, manipulative. Each of the writers, however, has displayed several weaknesses in his analysis: thus Churchman fails to locate the management scientist in the society of which he is a part; Hales has no clear or viable alternative other than to call (in effect) for socialism, and makes the erroneous assumption that managerial strategies are necessarily effective; whilst Whitley too seems to have ‘divested management research of its practical dimension’. In conclusion it is pointed out that the actual effects of managerial strategies must be treated as problematic, since they may be modified by various forms of resistance and class struggle, and that developments in the production process may not necessarily be to the detriment of workers.     

Relational Contracting in Partnerships

When performance is not verifiable, firms in a long-term relationship may rely on incentive contracts that are self-enforced or "relational." This paper studies the optimal design and performance of relational contracts in partnerships such as joint ventures or buyer-seller alliances. Optimal contracts look the same in each period as long as the relationship continues, but may require termination of the relationship after bad outcomes. Payments between the partners depend on their relative performance. In the special case of bilateral trade with specific investments, optimal relational contracting results in a price that varies with cost and demand conditions but is more stable than under spot market bargaining. Parallels are drawn with "Japanese style" subcontracting.     

Richard Whately and the Gospel of Transparency

Whately is a difficult thinker, partly because he is competent in so many disciplines. Joseph Schumpeter, who struggled with Whatley's "elusive" greatness, saw a systematic core in Whately: the force behind Nassau Senior's axiomatics. Whately's contemporaries did not talk of axiomatics, but they did point out that his work depended upon an unusually small number of authorities, that is, Aristotle, Bacon, and Smith. In our interpretation, these foundational sources gave Whately three guiding principles to characterize all human activity: innate sociability, innate self-love, and costly mental activity. Self-love includes a desire to know and a desire to share knowledge. These principles, coupled with a normative principle of fairness, constitute the basis for his science of reciprocal exchange, or catallactics. Violations of fairness motivate his multidimensional reform proposals. For Whately, fairness requires transparency, and the demands of transparency for tractions is literally Gospel.     

透视“新基建”--VUCA时代,重构你的人才地图

立足科技端,“新基建”将开启的是一个智能创造价值的时代,更是一个人才引领发展的时代。如何实现企业人才结构优化,为企业数字化创新转型赋能以及在经济增长新周期的制高点,人力资源产业将如何在“新基建”背后发挥更大的作用,获得创新性、高质量的增长等都需要在新基建的底层逻辑下深思。     

Public Efforts to Redevelop American Cities*

Never before, perhaps, has government at all levels been lobbied in behalf of the same cause by both liberals and conservatives, haves and have-nots, welfare statists and rugged individualists… All these have embraced the same vague, but virile, objective: the salvage and renewal of American, cities.²     

Henry George's Labor Theory of Value: He Saw the Entrepreneurs and Workers as Employers of Capital and Land, and Not the Reverse

A bstract . Henry George , the 19th century American economist and social philosopher , saw the problem of protecting the working peoples' wages and Jobs one of distributive justice. He attacked as fallacious the idea that equality of opportunity to work was a "privilege" accorded to labor. The protectionist system , he held, was based on the antidemocratic notion that "the many are called to serve and the few to rule." The paternalism of protection, whether in the domestic or the world economy , is "the pretense of tyranny," he argued. He holds that labor, including workers and entrepreneurs, and not landholders, or owners of capital, is the source of all economic value. Labor, he reasoned, "employs capital," and not the reverse. George's theory of value was an improvement on Adam Smith's , putting into it a greater emphasis on the importance of land in the analysis of the distribution of wealth. But it was a production cost theory, with all its problems and advantages.     

A New Indicator of European Integration and an Application to Collaboration in Scientific Research

The goal of this study is to develop a comprehensive indicator of integration among countries within a supranational system. Integration is not analysed in terms of the growth in interactions among countries, but in terms of the matrix distribution of interactions among countries. Integration can then be indicated in terms of interaction biases among countries measured by the difference between the observed matrix distribution and the hypothetical random distribution. The indicator is applied to data on research collaborations among European research institutions (1993-2000). Evidence is found that the European science system has indeed become more integrated. The higher level of integration has resulted exclusively from a more evenly distributed pattern of European collaborations, while the strong bias towards intra-national collaborations persisted. The results point to the persistence of national science systems. A future research agenda and science policy implications are discussed.     

A Natural Science Version of Socioeconomic Evolution: Copeland's Essays Are His First Sustained Attempt to Apply His Approach to Economic History

A bstract . Morris A. Copeland advanced a theory 50 years ago based on the idea, widely accepted in the social sciences at that time, that the society and its economy and polity are products of socioeconotnic evoltttion. Hence, he reasoned, any theoretical economic statement is temporally and culturally relative. Therefore, he held, the concern of economics as a science is with the way economic activity is now organized as well as how it originated and developed over time in specific cultures. After applying it with history-making results to the contemporary economy, he now, in his new book of Essays , applies his approach to economic history, achieving an important methodological contribution.     

The Case of Case Studies: On the Methodological Discussion in Comparative Political Science

A look at comparative political science shows that many contributions to the field do compare, but do not reflect the methods used. This paper discusses the analytical differences between the comparative method, the statistical method and experiment. An overview of the methodological discussion shows that a case study and namely the analysis of deviant cases has its place in comparative analysis. The last part of this paper consequently deals with different forms of case study analysis and the underlying research interest. The discussion emphasizes that in-depth analyses of a limited number of cases is the core of comparative political science with a good ratio between methodological input and analytical results.     

ENTRE-U: An entrepreneurial orientation scale for universities

The development of a new scale, ENTRE-U, that measures the entrepreneurial orientation of university departments is described. Governments, industry, and funding organizations challenge universities to become more "entrepreneurial", often in the context of increasing the commercialization outcomes of publicly funded research. The extant literature on corporate entrepreneurial orientation (EO) suggests this orientation is beneficial when organizations face dynamic or hostile environments. However, the EO concept and related empirical research focus on firms in competitive markets. Little is known about the nature of EO in other organizational contexts. ENTRE-U was developed to facilitate empirical research on EO within public universities. Interviews and a follow-up focus group with faculty members from departments in computer science, health science, and engineering at Canadian Universities elicited items for the new scale. A survey of university department heads provided data for statistical development of the scale. ENTRE-U consists of four dimensions – research mobilization, unconventionality, industry collaboration, and perception of university policies – that successfully predict department involvement in commercialization activities. Implications of the findings and opportunities for research using the ENTRE-U scale are discussed.     

Feints

In both economic and military situations, agents may try to mislead rivals about their true types or plans, whatever they may be. We consider a simple model in which one player attacks and the other player defends. We show that such environments have two types of possible equilibrium behavior, depending upon the signaling technology. If the signal is not very revealing about the attacker's plans, then the attacker always invests more resources in attack than in misdirection. If the technology is revealing, then the attacker does not always feint, but when he feints, he invests more than half of his resources into misdirection. Comparative statics also depend on whether the technology is revealing.

" Always mystify, mislead and surprise the enemy, if possible ."

— General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson