Guest Editors' Introduction

abstract   This introductory paper provides a background to the origins, themes and papers of this Special Issue on Micro Strategy and Strategizing. Our overarching argument is that, while the field of strategy has traditionally concentrated on the macro-level of organizations, it needs now to attend to much more micro-level phenomena. We propose an activity-based view of strategy that focuses on the detailed processes and practices which constitute the day-to-day activities of organizational life and which relate to strategic outcomes. The paper develops this view by considering two bodies of theory, those of the resource based view and institutionalism; two bodies of empirical work, those on corporate diversification and structure; and finally the process tradition of strategy research. The paper identifies the benefits of the activity-based view and introduces some challenges for further research. It concludes by introducing the papers in this Special Issue.     

The roles of the HR function: A systematic review of tensions,continuity and change

This paper provides a comprehensive review of continuity and change in the roles associated with the HR function and the tensions they entail, systematically covering over 50 years of research. It reveals that the normative models of HR roles, including the influential work of Ulrich (e.g., 1997), have stimulated greater interest in studying HR roles than the sociological studies conducted by the field’s pioneers. In terms of change, many HR specialists have sought to make a transition, through various means, towards a greater strategic role in organisations. The extent to which they have navigated this transition successfully has been influenced by complex, multi-level contingencies and by the varying interpretations and responses of the stakeholders involved in HRM. The literature analysis shows that the historical tensions associated with the HR function remain a defining continuity. As the paradox perspective suggests, they are lived with or adjusted to, with varying degrees of success. In contrast to the dichotomous view of HR roles that assumes a trade-off between strategic and operational roles, the review provides evidence of synergy or complementarity between them. This more integrative view of HR roles is clearly important for the pursuit of greater mutuality in the employment relationship, something that is often strongly valued by HR specialists. The paper includes recommendations for future research to develop the theories and the research process on HR roles and practical implications.     

Micro‐Practices of Strategic Sensemaking and Sensegiving: How Middle Managers Interpret and Sell Change Every Day*

abstract This paper looks at the workings of ongoing primary sensemaking and sensegiving micro‐practices by which middle managers interpret and sell strategic change at the organizational interface. Through middle managers’ routines and conversations related to the implementation of a strategic change in a top‐of‐the‐line clothing company, the article shows how they contribute to renewing links with stakeholders, in particular clientele, by drawing on their tacit knowledge. Interpretative analysis of these routines and conversations highlights four micro‐practices of strategic sensemaking and sensegiving: translating the orientation, overcoding the strategy, disciplining the client, and justifying the change. The paper outlines a practice perspective of sensemaking and sensegiving. It ends by suggesting the necessity of looking at middle managers’ role as interpreters and sellers of strategic change at the micro level for a better understanding of their contribution in sustaining competitive advantage through their everyday activities.     

Managerial and organizational learning in Hungarian–Western mixed management organizations

The radical changes in Eastern Europe which aim to transform these economies into market economies put the issue of organizational and individual adaptation at the centre of attention. Hungarian-Western mixed management organizations are regarded as effective tools for helping this adaptation process. This paper examines, through the example of five joint ventures, what practices are to be changed and what problems arise in terms of organizational and individual adaptation and learning. For the theoretical framework, the author draws together the insights of four types of learning approaches with structural contingency theory, strategy-structure and strategic choice theories, institutional theory of organizations and organizational change theories. The paper finds that there are changes in the organizational routines and procedures as a response to changes in the contingent factors. Westerners do not, however, necessarily play a positive role as agents of change in introducing strategic thinking among Hungarian managers. This problem relates to the phenomenon of new paternalism which also makes it easier for Westerners to cope with the problems of not being able to change the old philosophies of their Hungarian staff.     

Strategic Decision Mking, Discourse, And Strategy As Social Practice

In this paper we argue that the existing conceptualizations of strategic decision making, while each affording valuable insights, offer only partial and disconnected perspectives of the strategy process that leave important questions un-addressed. To overcome this problem we develop an empirically grounded conceptualization of strategic decisions as elements of a strategic discourse, operating at both the structural level of social reproduction and the instrumental level of intentional communication, and constituting the medium through which choices are discussed and recorded, interpretations developed and expressed, and strategic actions initiated, authorized and acknowledged. This conceptualization opens up a number of research questions concerning the role of strategic decision making in the overall strategy process and leads to a fruitful conceptualization of strategy itself as a technological and appropriative social practice.     

Managing temporary workers: work identity,diversity and operational HR choices

Strategic HRM theory argues that organisations should distinguish different types of employees according to their value and availability. We argue that this has resulted in an underestimation of the importance of specific HRM practices in relation to temporary employees. Building on theoretical work that discusses the employment relationship for temporary employees, the process of identification with the organisation and different ways of managing diversity, we distinguish three approaches to the operational management of temporary employees. We explore two cases that reflect opposite ends of the scale. They illustrate the value of the theoretical framework and substantiate the claim that, even after the strategic choice for a lean, distanced and uninvolved temporary ‘employment mode’ is made, different operational HRM practices lead to differences in performance.     

Aligning strategic human resource management and person–environment fit

Strategic human resource management addresses the need to create vertical linkages of human resource management (HRM) attributes with corporate strategy as well as horizontal linkages that integrate practices among HRM functions. Most models commonly focus on either vertical or horizontal linkages. This paper utilizes three categories of person–environment fit to create both vertical and horizontal linkages. Based on a strategic contingency framework, it demonstrates how person–environment fit relates to organizational competencies that supports corporate strategy. Furthermore, it demonstrates how person–environment fit can be used to promote internal alignment of HRM practices. Implications of this approach to strategic human resource management are then discussed.     

Theoretical implications from the case of performance-based human resource management practices in Japan: management fashion,institutionalization and strategic human resource management perspectives

In Japan, a new type of human resource management (HRM) practices called ‘performance-based HRM practices’ (seika-shugi in Japanese) emerged in the 1990s, and has been adopted by many Japanese firms. In this paper, I illustrate how these type of practices emerged as a management fashion, diffused across a large number of Japanese firms, and became institutionalized in the Japanese business context; and discuss the relationship between performance-based HRM practices and firm performance. This illustration is used to develop a theoretical framework to better understand the relationship between HRM practices and firm performance by integrating theories of management fashions, institutionalization and strategic HRM. Suggestions for future research are also discussed.     

The Practice and Process of Delivering Integration through Strategic Planning

This paper explains how strategic planning is able to deliver strategic integration within organizations. While communication and participation within planning processes are perceived to have an integrative effect, we argue that these effects are unlikely to arise simply from bringing people together. Rather, we suggest that, given the varying interests of actors in different business units, integration will only arise from active negotiations and compromises between these actors. The paper is based upon a case of strategic planning in a multinational that was attempting to develop greater strategic integration across Europe. Drawing upon an activity theory framework, we examine how a common strategy emerges over time through modifications to the planning process and to different actors' roles within it. The findings are used to develop a process model that shows how different business unit characteristics of planning experience and relative power shape different experiences of communication and participation activities and different processes for achieving integration. The paper concludes with a discussion of how this process model contributes to the literature on strategic planning, political processes of strategy-making, and strategy-as-practice.     

Mobilizing consent: paternalism and cellular manufacturing

In this paper we explore the dynamics of the introduction of New Systems and Structures of Work Organization (NSSWO) in the context of the forces impacting upon organizational change in the unionized sector of manufacturing industry throughout the Thatcher period. This we do by way of a detailed case study of a major UK auto-components manufacturer. We explore a number of changes in work organization, including the introduction of a cellular-based system of manufacturing, from its initial strategic conception through to its implementation; the delegation of responsibility for quality to shop-floor operators and the use of more flexible working practices. In doing so, we reconsider the context of change, the detailed processes of change and the pattern of accommodation between labour and management. Drawing upon our previous work on the nature of paternalism (Ackers,and Black, 1991), we explore its significance in terms of management’s constant drive for more economic work practices and patterns of organization. Specifically we explore the significance of paternalism as a relevant concept in interpreting the case, and hence, also, as a relevant concept in understanding HRM. The case challenges the prevailing ideology that the ‘successful’

economic organization requires (a) a de-regulated labour market and (b)

a trade union free environment, or, failing this, that management needs to

develop an individualistic approach towards the work-force, moving from the

more pluralist‘industrial relations’approach towards an essentially ‘unitarist framework, as found in certain interpretations of ‘uman resource management’(Guest, 1987)

The paper is thus a contribution to the continuing analysis of those ‘tensions and struggles through which the open ended potential of labour power have been managed, through shifting patterns of coercion, accommodation and compliance into profitable forms of production’(Elger and Smith, 1994: 12; Thompson, 1990). By means of this case we attempt to explore this issue with respect to three interconnected

themes:

The place of paternalism as a relevant concept in the age of HRM.

The extent to which organizations may be better advised to look towards ways

to build upon their existing organization culture, rather than seeking solutions

from overseas models.

Linking with previous work on the ‘Joint Process’in the US (Black and Ackers, 1994), the paper raises issues concerning the ‘strategic issue . . . which managers have to face . . . the balance between joint regulation and joint consultation’(Storey and Sissons, 1993: 221), and hence the role of trades unions in organizational change programmes.     

Navigating value networks to co-create sustainable business models: An actionable staging approach

Sustainable transitions typically require collaboration between multiple actors in the value chain or value network. Recent research has emphasized mapping of stakeholders and values as a starting point for identifying opportunities to realign these relationships, followed by business model experimentation to enable change. However, a simple mapping exercise does not consider the interplay between actors' concerns, business models, and interpretations of sustainability. Pedersen et al. (2022) advocated that aligning concerns is essential to collaborative design and innovation, and requires continuous negotiation between multiple actors. Here, we present a microlevel in-depth case study to examine how alignment across central value chain actors may be facilitated through the staging of numerous negotiations during the innovation process. Drawing on the staging negotiation spaces co-design framework, we provide insight into the content of multiple negotiations concerned with different aspects of sustainability during the development of a more sustainable laundry service system on the Danish island of Bornholm. Our findings illustrate how both value chain actors and a third-party intermediary stage negotiations, and elaborate the framework by attending to the strategic navigational efforts of network alignment through negotiations.     

Issues in the implementation of proactive environmental strategies

Management consultants, environmental groups, and industry trade associations have all recently offered guidelines for companies to improve environmental performance.¹ The guidelines suggest ways that companies can implement strategic change to move beyond compliance with regulation, assume responsibility for the environmental impacts of their products, and gain public credibility. Much of the advice offered can be useful to managers who are responding to rapidly changing environmental pressures. Nevertheless, implementation of some of the general guidelines could impose undue costs or introduce untoward organisational consequences for certain companies. While mentioned as an issue in the management literature, companies need more systematic advice on how best to tailor these broad guidelines for environmental strategic change to the specific needs and capabilities of their companies. In addition, as many companies are comprised of diverse business units that are sometimes linked together only through financial controls, managers must adapt environmental management programs to unique ‘substructures’ within the firm. These substructures can differ dramatically in their environmental performance and their management capabilities. Elsewhere we have offered a framework for analysing environmental strategies and management programs.² In this paper, we identify some of the implementation issues that confront companies when they introduce environmental strategic change. We argue that environmental strategies are most effectively implemented when they are consistent with the organisational characteristics and operating context of the company involved. We use Volvo's experience with environmental strategic change to highlight many of the difficulties that companies may encounter when altering their approach to environmental performance. The case illustrates how a company can modify its own strategy and management programs for more effective change. It is an interesting case to study because of the proactive and comprehensive nature of Volvo's environmental strategy and management programs.     

Aligning Manufacturing Strategy and Business-Level Competitive Strategy in New Competitive Environments: The Case for Strategic Resonance

abstract    In this paper we make the case for strategic resonance in the strategy making process within dynamic and highly volatile market conditions. We discuss how managers are faced with competing paradigms of resource-driven versus market-led approaches to strategy but we suggest that both paradigms have flaws and may cause strategic dissonance to occur. Moreover, we offer additional insights into why strategic dissonance can occur within the strategy process of the firm. We suggest that a key omission often lies in the neglect of operations managers' potentially important contributions to the strategy mainstream process.     

Strategic intent as a rhetorical device

Strategic intent is a useful concept in accounting for purpose and continuity of goals in an organization adapting to internal and external developmental pressures. Yet, extant literature on strategic intent does not account for heterogeneity of goals within an organization. Indeed, there is confusion over who possesses strategic intent. In this paper, we seek to revitalize the concept of strategic intent by exploring its potential as a rhetorical device. Based on philosophical theory of collective agency, we argue that to realize the integrative promise of strategic intent in organizations, achieving coherence between multiple intents is the most viable option. Drawing from rhetorical theories, we investigate the processes involved in diffusing intent and building coherence between multiple intents.     

基于复杂科学观点的战略性思维建构及其应用

本文的目的是为解决企业中战略经理人的战略性角色不强,导致企业战略缺失,或制定了战略却无法执行的战略失灵问题,因此引入了复杂科学观点的战略过程与战略内容构念,建构了一个战略性思维框架,作为战略家们在战略制定与行动前的战略思维分析之用。     

Incentives Management During Privatization: An Agency Perspective

abstract    This paper explains, through a field study and from an agency perspective, how monitoring and incentive alignment mechanisms change to support the interests of a privatized firm's new ownership. In this case, privatization led to important changes in the board of directors and to more formal performance evaluation and compensation systems for top managers, as profitability and financial control gained relevancy with the firm ownership change. Our results show that differences in incentives management before and after privatization are due to different agency relations in the two periods. We also argue that in a privatization framework the relation between monitoring and incentive alignment mechanisms is complex, not simply substitutive as agency theory would predict, and this finding allows us to refine and extend agency theory for this specific context.     

If HR were really strategically proactive: Present and future directions in HR's contribution to competitive advantage

Current business conditions mandate greater competitive advantage from HR agendas and processes. To add greater competitive advantage, HR must contribute strategic value against criteria from customer and capital markets. HR can add strategic value either reactively or proactively. In its strategically reactive mode, HR assumes the existence of a business strategy and adds value by linking HR practices to the business strategy and by managing change. In its strategically proactive mode, HR creates competitive advantage by creating cultures of creativity and innovation, by facilitating mergers and acquisitions, and by linking internal processes and structures with ongoing changes in the marketplace. This article defines and describes these specific practices through which HR can contribute to greater competitive advantage. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

战略管理咨询逻辑框架批评及重构

在评述国内外企业战略管理研究成果的基础上，联系战略咨询管理实践，遵循“实际问题导向”的思路，从战略管理逻辑本质的梳理构建，目标设定的层次性分析、前设条件集的系统明晰三个方面，充分讨论并清晰架构起战略管理咨询实践的逻辑框架，解决了战略管理咨询工具论缺失的种种困境，构建了战略咨询各理论工具实施运用的理论基础平台。     

海尔集团的管理变革实践：和谐管理视角的分析

经过二十多年的发展。海尔已经成为在海内外享有较高美誉的大型国际化企业集团，这在很大程度上归结为其科学先进的管理实践。从和谐管理理论的视角对海尔集团国际化发展战略阶段下管理变革实践的解剖分析发现，在不同战略目标或战略任务下，虽然海尔管理变革的目标不同．管理的手段和方法也有所差异，但都可用和谐管理理论给予合理的解释。同时也说明。和谐管理理论更具系统性和概括性，也具有非常独特的优势，能够用来更好地指导组织的管理变革实践。