Psychosocial Outcomes as Motivations for Visiting Nearby Urban Green Spaces

High-density urban living means that urban green spaces are important nodes of contact with nature. This study examines expected outcomes that motivate people to seek green spaces in urban settings. A sample of Swiss residents were presented with Shin, Kwon, Hammitt, and Kim's (2005 Shin, W., Kwon, H., Hammitt, W. and Kim, B. 2005. Urban forest park use and psychosocial outcomes: A case study in six cities across South Korea. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 20(5): 441–447. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) psychosocial outcomes scale and asked which activities they choose to undertake in nearby natural areas. The most important motivations for visiting nearby green spaces were related to restoration, with social bonding as a desirable side benefit. There were few observable differences between urban and rural residents and level of education attained. Older people are motivated to visit nearby green spaces by the wish to seek social contact while younger people are motivated by the wish to seek escape and to reflect. This study contributes to the understanding of the psychosocial outcomes that residents expect from engaging in an activity in an urban green space.     

Fostering environmental behaviors through observational learning

Abstract

This study applied and operationalized Bandura’s (1977 Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 1986 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. [Google Scholar]) four-step observational learning process (i.e., attention, retention, production, and motivation) to investigate how tour-guides, peer ecotourists, and local community members influenced a convenience sample of South Korean ecotourists’ environmentally responsible behavioral (ERB) intentions. Questionnaires were administered immediately after an ecotourism experience (n?=?207). Path analysis results largely supported a hypothesized Ecotourist Observational Learning Model and predicted ecotourists’ ERB intentions moderately well. Production (i.e., opportunities to engage in modeled ERBs) and motivation (i.e., positive reinforcement for engaging in these ERBs) predicted participants’ ERB intentions. Production was predicted by retention (i.e., observation of tour-guides and peer ecotourists’ modeled ERBs), which was, in turn, predicted by attention (i.e., physical, verbal and cognitive engagement). The findings indicate that Bandura’s (1986 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. [Google Scholar]) four-step observational learning process helps explain how ecotourists develop ERB intentions. The implications of the study indicate that tour-guides should model ERBs for participants, encourage participants to model ERBs for each other, provide opportunities for participants to engage in ERBs, and provide them with positive feedback for doing so. Others who seek to understand the processes underlying ecotourists’ ERBs during and after their experiences are encouraged to further test and build on the Ecotourist Observational Learning Model.     

Investigating the Sustainability of Cruise Tourism: A Case Study of Key West

This qualitative research examines cruise ship tourism through a case study of Key West, Florida, exploring its perceived benefits and drawbacks. It outlines the growth of the industry, the issues raised by that growth, and uses the land-use tourism model developed by Vera Rebollo and Ivars Baidal (2003) Vera Rebollo, J. F. and Ivars Baidal, J. A. 2003. Measuring sustainability in a mass tourist destination: Pressures, perceptions and policy responses in Torrevieja, Spain. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 11: 181–203. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar] to probe those issues. The results illustrate how mature cruise tourism destinations such as Key West fear continued growth and loss of sustainability, but have mixed emotions about future quantitative and qualitative growth.     

Harvesting the “Business Test Trip”: Converting Business Travelers to Holidaymakers

A destination has no chance of being chosen unless it is part of a tourist's early consideration set (Crompton & Ankomah, 1993 Crompton, J. and Ankomah, P. 1993. Choice set propositions in destination decisions. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(3): 461–476. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), implying the tourist's awareness of the destination. Raising awareness for a destination is challenging, especially in times of global competition. We investigate a common, yet empirically untested, assumption that business travelers can be converted to holidaymakers at the same destination at a future point in time. Empirical results indicate that business travelers do use business trips to a new destination to assess the potential for future leisure travel. Marketing strategies which destinations could deploy to entice business travelers back as holidaymakers are discussed.     

Tourism Destination Image and Motivations: The Spanish Perspective of Mexico

ABSTRACT

The notion that a tourist has about a certain destination is conditioned by his vision of it, and this behavior is the result of his perceptions (Baloglu &; McCleary, 1999 Baloglu, S. and McCleary, K. W. 1999. A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4): 868–897. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Goodrich, 1978 Goodrich, J. N. 1978. The relationship between preferences for and perceptions of vacation destinations: Application of a choice model. Journal of Travel Research, 17(2): 8–13. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). The outcome of this information assessment process is currently known as destination image (Milman &; Pizam, 1995 Milman, A. and Pizam, A. 1995. The role of awareness and familiarity with a destination: The central Florida case. Journal of Travel Research, 33(3): 21–27. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). Based on the model of Baloglu and McCleary (1999 Baloglu, S. and McCleary, K. W. 1999. A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4): 868–897. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) we propose a model which explains the process of destination image formation. For testing this model, we have gathered information from residents in Spain, with Mexico as a destination. For this task, a covariance analysis was estimated by maximum likelihood with EQS.     

Satisfying and Delighting the Rural Tourists

ABSTRACT

This study applies the concept of customer delight and the model proposed by Oliver, Rust, and Varki (1997 Oliver, R. L., Rust, R. T. and Varki, S. 1997. Customer delight: Foundations, findings and managerial insight. Journal of Retailing, 73(3): 311–336. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and modified by Finn (2005 Finn, A. 2005. Reassessing the foundations of customer delight. Journal of Service Research, 8(2): 103–116. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to the context of rural tourism. The model is applied to rural tourism lodgings in northern Portugal and validated using PLS technique. The results suggest that satisfaction is a more significant determinant of loyalty than delight and disconfirmation is an important predictor of both satisfaction and delight. This study further supports the conceptualization of customer delight and customer satisfaction as distinct constructs. Results may help managers of rural tourism accommodations to develop and implement more successful relationship marketing strategies.     

Going Green in Quick-Service Restaurants: Customer Perceptions and Intentions

As many industries are realizing the ecological, financial, and social benefits to implementing green practices in business, the literature shows that restaurants are slowly following suit (Deveau, 2009 Deveau, D. 2009. Fight the power. Foodservice and Hospitality, 41(11): 47–52.  [Google Scholar]; Dutta, Umashankar, Choi, & Parsa, 2008 Dutta, K., Umashankar, V., Choi, G. and Parsa, H. G. 2008. A comparative study of consumers' green practice orientation in India and the United States: A study from the restaurant industry. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 11(3): 269–285. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]). Increased competition in the marketplace coupled with changing guest demand as well the need to ensure guest satisfaction are some of the driving factors for service organizations to go green. The current study analyzes perceptions of a random sample of quick service restaurant guests in the Midwest regarding the green practices of restaurants in order to determine the impact that these practices may have on satisfaction, the intent to patronize the restaurant, and therefore the bottom line of the businesses. The findings show that although respondents believed that restaurants should utilize green practices, most people were not willing to pay higher prices for those green practices. Another finding is that people who implement green practices at home tend to have the intention to visit green restaurants more often. Increasing knowledge through marketing the green practices should be implemented by restaurants in order to increase awareness of such practices to the general public.     

Culture as a Variable in the Study of Leisure

Leisure researchers increasingly have invoked culture, either implicitly or explicitly, with the claim that it accounts for differences either in leisure behavior or in attitudes, motivations, or other feelings about leisure among putatively different cultural groups. Unfortunately, they have generally been unclear on what they mean by the term “culture.” Instead, they have relied on either presumably universally understood folk definitions or on proxy measures such as nationality, language, ethnicity or race to distinguish among “cultures” and, thereby, to understand how culture allegedly affects leisure.

Unfortunately, serious problems exist with this practice. The concepts of race and ethnicity, for example, are so heavily imbued with political meanings that their worth as scientific constructs is dubious at best (Brubaker, 2004 Brubaker, R. 2004. Ethnicity without groups, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Chick et al., 2007 Chick, G., Li, C. L., Zinn, H. C., Absher, J. D. and Graefe, A. R. 2007. Ethnicity as a construct in leisure research: A rejoinder to Gobster. Journal of Leisure Research., 39: 554–556. [Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Moreover, whether they genuinely reflect cultural differences is an empirical issue, not one to be simply assumed. Finally, comparing leisure behavior between two or more allegedly culturally different groups is by itself not evidence that any observed variations are due to culture and not something else. Hence, I have two purposes in this research reflection. First, I urge leisure researchers to determine and then report if they are intentionally using culture as an explanatory variable in their studies and, if so, to define it. Second, I recommend a type of definition because recent advances theory and methods make the culture concept useful as an independent explanatory variable.     

To bee or not to bee: whether ‘tis nobler to revere or to revile those six-legged creatures during one’s leisure

By incorporating the concept of speciesism into a multi-disciplinary critical approach to animal–human studies in leisure, I provide an overview of anthropomorphism and entomophobia and suggest how these concepts limit our understanding of human–insect encounters. The concentric circles of leisure illustrate how human–insect encounters in rural and urban areas are often influenced by our senses, spatial cues, socio-cultural forces and our perceived need for safety and comfort. In his study of the pluralistic aspects of environmental values, Norton (2000 Norton, B.G. 2000. Biodiversity and environmental values: In search of a universal earth ethic. Biodiversity and Conservation, 9(8): 1029–1044. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) suggested that we should be cautious in the dichotomy of the opposites and seek to find new approaches that consider the multitude of perspectives, the nuances and inconsistencies that make up human values of nature. Such an approach requires challenging the institutionalised speciesism woven into many aspects of our recreational activities, critiquing the philosophical underpinnings of anthropomorphism and entomophobia, and addressing inter and intra species dynamics throughout various leisure terrains (i.e. indoor/outdoor, urban/rural and local/global) and illustrating how such movements creates interactions that are fluid, complex, unsettling and rewarding. The potential contributions of leisure to this emerging field are outlined in the conclusion.     

Truth is marching on: the Lasershow Spectacular at the Stone Mountain Park Confederate Memorial and the changing narratives of history

The overarching goal of this paper is to examine the changing historical narratives of the Stone Mountain Park Confederate Memorial as seen through the Lasershow Spectacular, and how this performance speaks to broader issues of race, identity, geography, and memory. The implications of this discourse are especially significant for the identity construction of marginalized collectives. I begin with a brief theoretical explanation of history and cultural memory as socially constructed, including the significance of who gets to create it, its relationship with identity, and the connection between history and cultural memory and popular/consumer culture. Next, I discuss the current state of heritage tourism and how it relates to issues of racial (in)justice. Finally, I turn to Stone Mountain and the Lasershow Spectacular as a case study to examine the social construction of history and cultural memory at a tourist attraction, specifically discussing how the African-American experience is addressed (or not addressed) in Southern heritage tourism. This paper seeks to answer the call in a recent special issue of Tourism Geographies for more work that addresses African-American tourism and the inclusion/exclusion of African-Americans from tourist sites (Alderman, 2013 Alderman, D. H. (2013). Introduction to the special issue: African Americans and tourism. Tourism Geographies, 15(3), 375–379. doi: 10.1080/14616688.2012.762544[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]).     

The Impact of Diversity Seeking and Volunteer Orientation on Desire for Alternative Spring Break Programs

ABSTRACT

In this study of volunteer tourism, the values affecting participants' perceptions of and attitudes toward an alternative spring break program are compared to the values affecting their perceptions of and attitudes toward their previous and ideal spring breaks. Results show that the values of fun and rewarding are associated with different preferences that are affected by participants'levels of the individual difference factors Volunteer Orientation (Mowen &; Sujan, 2005 Mowen, J. C. and Sujan, H. 2005. Volunteer behavior: A hierarchical model approach for investigating its trait and functional motive antecedents. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15(2): 170–182. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and Diversity Seeking (Brumbaugh &; Grier, 2009 Brumbaugh, A. M. and Grier, S. A. 2009. Diversity seeking: Scale development and validation [Working paper], Charleston, SC: College of Charleston.  [Google Scholar]). Results suggest that these individual difference factors are fruitful variables for segmentation in the volunteer tourism industry. Implications for marketing programs are discussed.     

The Re‐Branding of Salsa in London’s Dance Clubs: How an Ethnicised Form of Cultural Capital was Institutionalised

Abstract

This paper explores how participants in a popular dance scene renegotiate the aesthetics used to judge the acceptability of dances performed in those spaces. These issues are explored with reference to Bourdieu’s (1977 Bourdieu, P. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge, Cambridge: University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) concepts of social fields and cultural capital and to ethnographic data collected in London’s Salsa clubs. The main argument is that Salsa dancing can function as a form of cultural capital that has with an ethnic dimension. This paper, based on participant observation in London’s clubs and the accounts of 31 of London’s Salsa club dancers, DJs and dance teachers, suggests that London’s Salsa dancers have competed with each other to establish a local de‐ethnicised interpretation of Salsa which refers to the forms of cultural capital to which they have access.     

Comparing Constraints to Cruising Between Cruisers and Non-Cruisers: A Test of the Constraint-Effects-Mitigation Model

ABSTRACT

This study empirically tested the constraint-effects-mitigation model (Hubbard &; Mannell, 2001 Hubbard, J. and Mannell, R. C. 2001. Testing competing models of the leisure constraint negotiation process in a corporate employee recreation setting. Leisure Sciences, 23: 145–163. [Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) across cruiser and non-cruiser groups to understand constraints to cruising. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were utilized to develop appropriate measurement scales and to test the constraint model. The model was found to have an acceptable fit to the data, which provided evidence for validating the constraint-effects-mitigation model. While the factor structure of the constraint-effects-mitigation model was found to be similar, the mean values of all measurement items and factors and some regression paths were found to be different across the two groups. More specifically, cruisers had fewer constraints to cruising, higher travel motivations and intention, and were more likely to negotiate their constraints to travel. Based on the study results, both theoretical and practical implications were recommended. It is suggested that further investigation is needed to validate the model in other study contexts.     

Motivation Factors of Ecotourists in Ecolodge Accommodation: The Push and Pull Factors

Tourist motivations are important factors in understanding tourist behaviour in relation to destination choice; and motivation relates to the needs, goals and preference of the tourists. Extensive research work on tourist motivation factors has been documented in the tourism literature. However, there seems to be a lack of empirical study on the accommodation sector, in particular ecolodge accommodation. Attention to tourists' motivational factors in the ecolodge accommodation is essential for determining the tourists' choices or needs and tourist behaviour in terms of choosing ecolodge accommodation. Previous studies determine that tourist motivations are influenced by both push and pull forces; and these forces describe how an individual is pushed by motivating variables into making travel decisions and how they are pulled or attracted by destination attributes. This paper reports an exploratory qualitative study on ecotourists' motivation factors in the ecolodge accommodation by adopting pull and push motivation theory. In-depth interviews were conducted with 29 ecotourists who stayed in the two ecolodges in Sukau. The findings reveal that ecotourists are primarily attracted by the destination attributes (natural attractions, wildlife, local lifestyle and eco-activities) where ecolodges are located, which we term pull factors. At the same time, they are also pushed by their social–psychological desire to escape from their routine of normal life (push factors) by visiting ecolodges. This suggests that there are two different motivational forces among the ecotourists; and that ecotourists' motivational factors can be explained by employing “seeking” and “escaping” as motivational dimensions of leisure behaviour (Ross & Iso-Ahola, 1991 Ross, E. L. D. and Iso-Ahola, S. E. 1991. Sightseeing tourists' motivation and satisfaction. Annals of Tourism Research, 18(2): 226–237. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], Annals of Tourism Research, 18(2) 226–237). The findings seem to inform that ecotourists' choices to stay in the ecolodges in Sukau are strongly influenced by the destination attributes or attractions around the ecolodges and not ecolodge accommodation attributes. The identification of motivational factors in this study provides a clearer account of what actually attracts the ecotourists to stay at ecolodges. It suggests that the marketing strategies for ecolodges should focus more on the destination attractions around the ecolodge accommodation. The ecolodge operators should position their ecolodges based on the unique destination attributes – wildlife and pristine environment – rather than the ecolodge attributes. Similarly, it is important for the ecolodge operators to conserve and protect their surrounding natural resources since these are the main motivational factors for tourists to patronize their ecolodges.     

The Effects of the Image Differentiated Positioning Strategy on Airlines Consumer Behavior: An Application of the Schema Theory

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to establish and test a model of the image differentiation positioning strategy in the airline industry. This study is based on the schema, which is defined as “a stored framework of cognitive knowledge that represents information about a topic, a concept, or a particular stimulus, including its attributes and the relations among the attributes” (Aggarwal &; McGill, 2007 Aggarwal, P. and McGill, A. L. 2007. Is that car smiling at me? Schema congruity as a basis for evaluating anthropomorphized products. Journal of Consumer Research, 34: 468–479. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], p. 470). The objectives of the study are: (a) to compare the differences between two models (schema plus tag model and subtyping model) of the schematic process; (b) to identify the relationship between the image differentiated positioning strategy and the schematic process; and (c) to assess how the schematic process influences future consumer behavior (attitude and purchasing behavior). Results showed that the airline's image differentiated positioning strategy had a positive effect on future consumer behavior through the schema.     

Service Failure and Recovery in a Strategic Airline Alliance Context: Interplay of Locus of Service Failure and Social Identity

ABSTRACT

There has been a dramatic increase in the past decade in the number of strategic alliances and business networks. Yet, despite these trends in the business environment, the individual firm-customer dyad has remained the contextual focus of most services marketing research (Gittell, 2002 Gittell, J. H. 2002. Relationships between service providers and their impact on customers. Journal of Service Research, 4(4): 299–311. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). Using a scenario study, this research investigates the effects of service failures in a strategic airline alliance setting, with a particular focus on locus of service failure and strength of social identification, on three alliance entities—a consumer's home carrier, the alliance partner airline, and the alliance. Study findings suggest that consumers' evaluations are more stable (less extreme) when the home carrier causes the service failure. In contrast, when a lesser known entity (partner airline) causes the service failure, consumers are more willing to rate that entity harshly. Furthermore, compared to weak identifiers, strong identifiers were not only more positive in their evaluation of the home carrier but also in their evaluation of the alliance, pointing to a halo effect, whereby positive evaluations of the home carrier are transferred to the alliance. Implications of study results are discussed and directions for future research provided.     

Memberships Levels in U. S. Private Clubs During the 2008–2010 Economic Downturn

This study measured membership changes in private clubs in the United States during the economic downturn from 2008 to 2010. Specifically examined were the changes clubs experienced with their number of members, waiting lists, and attrition rates. A letter was sent via e-mail to the same 1,000 private clubs that were sent a survey in a similar study conducted by Ferreira and Gustafson (2006 Ferreira, R. R. and Gustafson, C. M. 2006. Declining memberships during an economic downturn in U.S. private clubs. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 7(2/3): 3–18. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) The managers of these clubs were members of the Club Managers Association of America. The majority of respondents managed country clubs and member-owned clubs, representing different areas of the United States. An overall response rate of 53% was achieved. Most clubs experienced a decrease in the overall number of members and an increase in annual attrition rate. Fewer clubs reported having a waiting list of members wanting to join. The clubs without waiting lists reported a larger number of membership openings in their clubs. The results of this study suggest the levels of memberships in many private clubs are heavily influenced by economic conditions. An implication from this study is that clubs need to implement membership development strategies during economic downturns because of the decline in the number of members, candidates proposed, and waiting lists during these periods.     

Similarities and Differences of the Effect of Country Images on Tourist and Study Destinations

ABSTRACT

The present study attempts to determine whether students hold similar or different country images when they are “buying” study abroad programs and tourism destinations. This article also tries to investigate similarities and differences in the brand personality perceptions of countries when they are considered as tourism and as study abroad destinations through the application of the brand personality characteristics model developed by Aaker (1997 Aaker, J. L. 1997. Dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 34(3): 347–356. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). A convenience sample of 360 students was split into two groups based on the motivation for visiting a specific country, whether for tourism or to participate in a study abroad program. The t test was used to calculate the significance of differences in country images between the two groups—those considering study abroad programs and those considering tourism destinations. The study concludes that the knowledge developed within the tourism context regarding images of countries may be applied to the context of study abroad programs.     

Drivers of change in regional tourism governance: a case analysis of the influence of the New South Wales Government,Australia, 2007–2013

The study of governance and policy-making for tourism is an important area of academic scholarship. This paper reviews recent theoretical concepts and approaches to governance, policy-making, and sustainable and regional tourism. Practical application of these concepts is demonstrated through a case study analysis that traces and assesses the main policy and strategic initiatives of the New South Wales Government (Australia) directed at influencing change in regional tourism governance from 2007 to 2013. The analysis compares these main drivers influencing change at a regional scale to relevant themes, concepts and interpretations derived from literature on tourism governance. In particular, it uses Hall's (2011 Hall, C.M. (2011). A typology of governance and its implications for tourism policy analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(4–5), 437–457.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) typology of tourism governance as a framework to explore conceptualisations of the governance structures evident in the case. The paper demonstrates the complexity of the regional tourism governance space, including the ebb and flow of various policy initiatives that have been driven by the political agendas of consecutive governments and their election commitments, as well as a pro-growth mode of governance that does not emphasise sustainable tourism. Moreover, the case suggests the opportunity to use destination management planning as a framework to drive sustainable tourism outcomes.     

Transcending Emotional Community: A Qualitative Examination of Older Adults and Masters' Sports Participation

This qualitative study examined meanings of community as they developed among older adults who participate in Master's sports. Four themes emerged through data analysis that described what a sense of community meant to study participants: a shared sporting interest, comrades in continued activity, relevant life purpose, and giving back. These themes each lend general support to the four elements that constitute McMillan and Chavis' (1986) McMillan, D. W. and Chavis, D. M. 1986. Sense of community: A definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 14: 6–23. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] sense of community construct. The findings of this study counter the claims that leisure-related experiences of community are largely episodic, emotional and fleeting, and do little to provide sustained experiences of community. This paper concludes with recommendations for further research.