Predicting autonomous and controlled motivation to transfer training

In spite of a broad consensus on the importance of motivation for the transfer of learning from training to the job in work organizations, studies investigating motivation to transfer are limited. This study combines the self‐determination theory, the expectancy theory and the theory of planned behaviour to provide a theoretical framework for investigating attitudes towards training content, relatedness and instructional satisfaction as predictors of two dimensions of transfer motivation: autonomous motivation to transfer and controlled motivation to transfer. A total of 444 subjects, trained in 23 occupational health and safety training courses, completed multi‐item questionnaires immediately following training. Structural equation modelling procedures indicate that controlled motivation to transfer was affected by attitudes towards training content and that autonomous motivation to transfer was affected by attitudes, relatedness and instructional satisfaction. The results are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications for training effectiveness associated with the interplay of motivation and transfer in professional training.     

What predicts skill transfer? An exploratory study of goal orientation,training self‐efficacy and organizational supports

Results from a study examining the predictors of skill transfer from an instructional to a work environment are presented. Prior research indicates that skill transfer is a function of both individual and contextual factors. A total of 186 employees from a work organization were surveyed on individual dimensions (goal orientation, training self‐efficacy) and contextual factors (supervisor and peer support). Pre‐training motivation was proposed as proximal training outcome and further connected to the distal outcome, skill transfer. Analyses with structural equation modeling using EQS indicate that individual dimensions, such as mastery‐approach goal orientation and training self‐efficacy, are related to pre‐training motivation. Also, contextual factors, such as peer support, predicted both pre‐training motivation and skill transfer, while supervisor support was unrelated to either pre‐training motivation or skill transfer. Pre‐training motivation, in turn, was related to skill transfer. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

Exploring the role of goal theory in understanding training motivation

A model to test conceptions from goal theory within an existing framework of training motivation was developed and tested with employees participating in training in a non‐profit organization. It was hypothesized that goal orientation ('distal factors’) along with self‐efficacy, expectancy and valence (‘proximal factors’) would predict goal intentions as well as training outcomes such as affective responses to training, perceptions of training utility and intention to transfer or use the training provided. Results revealed that goal orientation predicted a significant proportion of variance in the proximal antecedents (valence (33 per cent), expectancy (39 per cent) and self‐efficacy (31 per cent)) whereas the proximal antecedents explained 43 per cent of the variance in goal intentions. In turn, goal intentions were related to training outcomes (affect (b = 0.7), utility (b = 0.6) and transfer intention (b = 0.5)). Goal intentions mediated the relationship between proximal antecedents and training outcomes, providing evidence that goal intentions play a pivotal role in the causal path from proximal factors to training outcomes. Valence alone was found to be a significant mediator of the relationship between goal orientation and goal intentions.     

Individualism–collectivism and the role of goal orientation in organizational training

This research examines how individualism–collectivism and goal orientation impact training effectiveness through study of an internationally diverse sample of engineers who were undergoing technical training. In light of contemporary views of individualism–collectivism, we argue that collectivism will moderate the influence of learning and performance goal orientations on training by shaping the impact of one's perceived social context on existing performance concerns and goals. Using a sample from a large multinational corporation, we examined the effects of individualism–collectivism and goal orientation on training transfer intentions, motivation to learn, and test performance. Mixed support for our hypotheses was found. Collectivists were found to exhibit higher levels of training transfer intentions and motivation to learn. However, when collectivism was combined with a performance goal orientation, its effects on training outcomes were diminished. Applications for organizations and future extensions of the present research are discussed.     

Social support and motivation to transfer as predictors of training transfer: testing full and partial mediation using meta‐analytic structural equation modelling

Social support and motivation to transfer are important components in conceptual models on transfer of training. Previous research indicates that both support and motivation influence transfer. To date, however, it is not yet clear if social support influences transfer of training directly, or if this influence is mediated by motivation to transfer. Conceptually, some models assume that motivation to transfer fully mediates the influence of social support on transfer (full mediation models), whereas other models also include direct relationships between social support and transfer of training (partial mediation models). In addition, some models specify finer sub‐dimensions of social support, such as supervisor support, peer support, supervisor sanctions and feedback/coaching. What is the relative influence of these dimensions on the transfer of training? To what extent does motivation to transfer mediate the influence of different support dimensions and transfer? Aimed at answering these questions, the present meta‐analysis (k = 32 studies, N = 5487 participants) examined the relationships between social support, motivation to transfer and transfer of training. Social support was conceptualized in four dimensions: supervisor support, peer support, supervisor sanctions and feedback/coaching. Meta‐analytic structural equation modelling was used to test a partial mediation model and a full mediation model. Full mediation resulted in a better model fit. Peer support was the strongest predictor of motivation to transfer, and feedback/coaching was the strongest predictor of transfer of training. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings for developing conceptual models, measurement instruments and training interventions are discussed.     

How to predict transfer of training? Investigating the application of the unified model of task-specific motivation

Transfer motivation is an important factor influencing transfer of training. However, earlier research often did not investigate transfer motivation as a multidimensional construct. The unified model of task-specific motivation (UMTM) takes into account that (transfer) motivation is multidimensional by including both affective and cognitive motivational components and their antecedents. Prior research has provided evidence that the UMTM can predict self-reported transfer of training, but is unclear whether it also can predict transfer reported by expert external raters. Moreover, it is unclear whether controlling for prior knowledge matters for the relationship between transfer motivation and transfer of training. This study improves on existing research by accounting for both of these gaps in the literature. Data were collected among 299 participants who filled in a questionnaire about the UMTM components directly after attending a writing training. They also handed in written documents before, and 6 weeks after the training, which were rated on transfer by trainers. Outcomes showed that components of the UMTM positively predict externally reported transfer when prior knowledge was controlled for. The outcomes imply that the UMTM has predictive value for transfer of training and points out which factors influence whether transfer does or does not occur.     

Linking positive affect and motivation to transfer within training: a multilevel study

Motivation to transfer is a critical element for successful training transfer. Whereas recent research has shown that training‐related factors such as training design are related to motivation to transfer, participants’ affective experiences have been neglected. Based on the broaden‐and‐build theory of positive emotions, we conducted a multilevel study to investigate the relationship between positive affect and motivation to transfer at the individual and at the group level of analysis. A total of 867 training participants drawn from 78 three‐day training programmes were surveyed on the first day (T1) and the last day (T2) of the training. As expected, positive affect was found to be related to motivation to transfer at both T1 and T2. Furthermore, the relationship between positive affect at T1 and motivation to transfer at T2 was mediated by motivation to transfer at the individual and the group level at T1 and by positive affect at the individual level at T2.     

Voluntary or mandatory enrollment in training and the motivation to transfer training

The purpose of this study is to examine the motivation to transfer training in a multidimensional way. It investigates autonomous and controlled motivation and explores the difference in motivation to transfer according to whether the employee is enrolled in training on a voluntary or mandatory basis. This is a cross‐sectional hypotheses‐testing study. Data were collected at a large insurance company involving employees who had participated in training programs in the previous 6 months. Findings show that when considering autonomous motivation to transfer, results support the argument that being voluntarily enrolled in the training program shows a higher impact on motivation to transfer than being mandatorily enrolled. When considering controlled motivation to transfer, results do not support such an argument, probably because of the nature of controlled motivation to transfer that in practice reduces the difference in results between the two types of enrollment.     

Employee participation in non‐mandatory professional development – the role of core proactive motivation processes

With a focus on the self‐initiated efforts of employees, this study examined a model of core proactive motivation processes for participation in non‐mandatory professional development (PD) within a proactive motivation framework using the Self‐Determination Theory perspective. A multi‐group SEM analysis conducted across 439 academic and general employees of an Australian regional University provided initial support for the model. Results indicated that when employees are autonomously motivated to participate in non‐mandatory PD, intrinsic benefits are the most salient aspiration that also mediate the influence of autonomous motivation on transfer implementation intentions. Extrinsic benefits are likely to be a secondary outcome which does not directly relate to transfer implementation intentions. Further research should replicate and extend this core model in other organizational settings where participation in non‐mandatory PD is a critical factor in the effectiveness of the organization.     

Social support at the workplace,motivation to transfer and training transfer: a multilevel indirect effects model

Supervisor support, peer support and transfer motivation have been identified as important predictors of training transfer. Transfer motivation is thought to mediate the support–training transfer relationship. Especially after team training interventions that include all team members (i.e. whole‐team training), individual perception of these factors might be shared among team members. However, an integration of the team level in the training transfer process is rare, yet still needed. Analyzing 194 employees from 34 teams in the context of whole‐team training interventions, we found similar relationships and processes at both levels of analysis: social support enhances transfer motivation at the individual and team levels. Furthermore, motivation to transfer increases training transfer and serves as a connecting mechanism in the social support–training transfer link. The results underline the importance of: (1) considering multiple levels in theories and research about the training transfer process; and (2) ensuring the practice of individual‐directed support and a shared, supportive climate within teams.     

The role of motivation to lead for leadership training effectiveness

In this study, the construct of motivation to lead (MtL) is considered as a predictor of leadership training effectiveness. MtL, the individual preference to take on leadership roles, is a motivation that specifically relates to the content of leadership training. A total of 132 managers participated in a longitudinal follow‐up study. The influence of MtL on training effectiveness is explained by a serial mediation process. Individuals high on MtL benefit more from training by acquiring more leadership competencies, which in turn results in more effective leadership behavior and ultimately higher training effectiveness 1 year later. Understanding the process through which trainees' individual MtL influences building up competencies is important for identifying mechanisms that drive training effectiveness. Organizational support is revealed to further enhance this training process by moderating the influence of MtL on leadership competencies. From a practical perspective, MtL is important for leadership training effectiveness and measures should be taken to enhance MtL.     

Assessing the antecedents of transfer intentions in a training context

This study examined the underlying structure of transfer climate and those aspects of transfer climate that were related to pre‐training self‐efficacy, pre‐training motivation, and post‐training transfer implementation intentions. Positive and negative affectivity (PA and NA) were also measured in order to better understand the relationship of these variables to trainees’ perceptions of the transfer climate and the other training‐related variables. Transfer climate was best represented by two underlying constructs, although these were correlated. After controlling for PA and NA, none of the transfer climate variables were significantly related to pre‐training self‐efficacy, while only positive reinforcement was significantly related to pre‐training motivation. Pre‐training self‐efficacy was also a significant predictor of pre‐training motivation, even after controlling for PA and NA. Negative affectivity was the only significant predictor of post‐training transfer implementation intentions. Further research needs to clarify whether PA and NA are contributors to the trainees’ perceptions of the transfer climate or are a product of these perceptions.     

The transfer of training: what really matters

Although organizations invest billions of dollars in training every year, many trained competencies reportedly fail to transfer to the workplace. Researchers have long examined the ‘transfer problem’, uncovering a wealth of information regarding the transfer of training. Inconsistencies remain, however, and organizations may find it difficult to pinpoint exactly which factors are most critical. Using Baldwin and Ford's model of transfer, we identify the factors relating to trainee characteristics (cognitive ability, self‐efficacy, motivation, perceived utility of training), training design (behavioral modeling, error management, realistic training environments) and the work environment (transfer climate, support, opportunity to perform, follow‐up) that have exhibited the strongest, most consistent relationships with the transfer of training. We describe our reasoning for extracting such variables from the literature and conclude by discussing potential implications for practice and future research.     

How identification facilitates effective learning: the evaluation of generic versus localized professionalization training

Worldwide, organizations are keen to ensure that they achieve a performance return from the large investment they make in employee training. This study examines the way in which workgroup identification facilitates trainees’ motivation to transfer learning into workplace performance. A 2 × 2 longitudinal study evaluated the effects of a new generic professionalization training program (NGP) – which tapped into distal work identities, and a standard local professionalization program (SLP) – which spoke more to localized work identities, on participant's motivation to transfer their learning to the workplace. The study found that, compared to participants on the SLP (n = 31), participants on the NGP (n = 35) indicated a reduction in 4 measures (perceived utility of training; workplace participation; relatedness and workplace identification). The authors draw on the social identity approach to illustrate how a reduction in these variables is indicative of a reduction in motivation to transfer learning to the workplace. In short, training which does not speak to meaningful localized identities results in reduced motivation to transfer compared to training that does speak to those identities. More broadly, the study demonstrates the capacity of the social identity approach to meet the increasing demands of training researchers for a comprehensive, multi‐dimensional, theoretical framework through which to understand the interplay of trainee and contextual factors that contribute to effective learning and performance in the workplace.     

Self‐regulated learning and training effectiveness

In recent years, training has shifted towards a more learner‐centred perspective. At the same time, rapidly changing workplaces emphasize the importance of self‐regulatory processes in the workplace. In the light of these trends, this research investigates the role of self‐regulated learning in training effectiveness. A theoretical model in which self‐regulated learning plays a central role in training evaluation was developed and validated using the structural equation method with a sample of 137 individuals. The results indicate that self‐regulated learning mediates the relationship between training climate and both transfer motivation and training evaluation. These findings indicate that the concept of self‐regulated learning plays a key role in the relationship between training context variables and organizational outcomes and offer new insights into the way organizations can improve training effectiveness.     

Effects of proactive personality and conscientiousness on training motivation

Training transfer is a ubiquitous but frequently unmet goal of training initiatives amounting to billions of dollars lost annually and masses of under‐skilled workers due to the lack of application of training content to their job. Although research supports the impact trainee proactive personality, conscientiousness and motivation have on training transfer processes, their interrelationships remain understudied. To fill this gap, we utilized data from a multinational sample of trainees and examined a conditional, indirect process model, where proactive personality interacts with conscientiousness to influence transfer intentions through their effects on motivation to learn. Our results suggest that trainee proactive personality positively influences transfer intentions partially through its influence on motivation to learn and that higher levels of conscientiousness weakens this relationship. Our findings provide further evidence supporting the importance of proactive personality and conscientiousness as factors that need to be accounted for in the design of talent development solutions.     

The relationship between job dissatisfaction and training transfer

The high rates of training transfer failure that prevail still puzzle practitioners as well as researchers. The central aim of the present study is to analyze the relatively under‐researched role of job dissatisfaction in the training transfer process. Specifically, we expect that job dissatisfaction would have a negative effect on transfer but that this effect would be buffered by the expectation of positive transfer consequences and motivation to transfer. To test these hypotheses, 220 participants in different training programs completed an online questionnaire 1 year after training. The results support our assumptions. They reveal that job dissatisfaction has a detrimental effect on training transfer, but that motivation to transfer and the expectation of positive transfer consequences have a buffering effect. The more motivated a person is towards transfer, the less negative is the effect of job dissatisfaction on actual transfer, but only if a person expects positive outcomes from transfer, such as acknowledgment or rewards. The findings are discussed in relation to existing training transfer models, as well as models of job (dis)satisfaction.     

Transfer of training: a case‐study of outsourced training for staff from Bhutan

The article examines the perceptions of managers, academics and technical staff in relation to the transfer of training resulting from their participation in out‐country training funded by Bhutan's Ministry of Education. Out‐country training refers to in‐service education, training and professional development programs, especially in relation to technical education, higher education and specialization courses undertaken abroad. The objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of out‐country training over a five‐year period to gauge the level of training transfer among three different types of participants. The methodology included surveying 149 Bhutanese out‐country training participants between 1999 and 2003. A representative sampling technique was used to select 58 academics, 46 managers and 45 technical support staff for inclusion in the survey. Semistructured in‐depth interviews were also conducted with 19 of these trainees across the three categories. Results of the study indicate high initial levels of motivation in all trainees, but a change in attitude toward their training once it was underway. On return to the workplace, participants reported even less confidence in their ability to transfer their learning compared to their confidence reported before the program began.     

The impact of practical relevance on training transfer: evidence from a service quality training program for German bank clerks

The management literature provides a variety of recommendations as to how workers’ customer orientation might be improved, including through training. Crucial factors in the process of transferring the contents of service quality training programs to practice, however, have not yet been sufficiently analysed. This study proposes and tests a model of transfer motivation and training transfer via structural equation modelling, validating Baldwin and Ford's framework and Kirkpatrick's levels of evaluation. Following the recommendation of Alliger et al., the present study analyses the relationship between Kirkpatrick's levels of evaluation, paying attention to the specificity of the measures at each level. The survey collects data from 213 German bank employees who attended a training program aimed at improving service quality. As hypothesized, the perceived practical relevance of the training was found to exert a strong influence on the reaction of the participants and had a substantial total effect on the motivation to transfer and on actual transfer. Subject to the limitations of the research methodology employed here, it is concluded that trainee satisfaction needs to be conceptually distinguished from perceived practical relevance and that the latter is the main driving force for transfer motivation and transfer.     

Affective predictors of the effectiveness of training moderated by the cognitive complexity of expected competencies

Research in training, development and education (TD&E) in organizations has produced important results in the last two decades. Evaluation of TD&E has been a special focus of this research, which has resulted in the production of relevant predictive models. The present study has the aim of testing a model of effectiveness of training on work, with the trainee's motivation and satisfaction with training as the antecedent variables and the type of training as a moderator variable. Data collection with 600 participants in a Brazilian bank was conducted with measurement scales before training, at its end and three months later. The data were analyzed through structural equation modeling. The results indicate that the motivation of the trainee and satisfaction with training are predictors of its effectiveness on work and that the type of training affects this predictive relationship. The key feature of the type of training was the cognitive complexity of expected competencies.