The Challenge of Setting Standards for a Worldwide Constituency: Research Implications from the IASB’s Early History

Based on Camfferman and Zeff [(2015). Aiming for global accounting standards: The International Accounting Standards Board, 2001–2011. Oxford: Oxford University Press] we reflect on possibilities for academic research on the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) and its International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs). We argue that a research agenda may be formed around the notion that the IASB differs from national standard setters because its constituent base includes jurisdictions as well as the more traditional preparer, user and auditor constituency groups. We show that taking a jurisdictional angle draws attention to the variety among the IASB’s jurisdictional constituents, identifying numerous research possibilities related to their decisions to adopt, or not to adopt, IFRSs, and to the mechanisms they have developed to form their own IFRS policies and to interact with the IASB. We illustrate how the IASB’s structure, governance, processes and standards are influenced by the challenge of reconciling the needs and values of jurisdictional constituents with the objective of setting global accounting standards. We call for research on the ramifications of the diversity of jurisdictional constituents, as well as changing perceptions of standard setting within jurisdictions, for all aspects of the functioning of the IASB. Such research should make greater use of the variety of sources available to researchers today.     

我国金融工具从四分类到两分类的现实思考

2009年11月12日,国际会计准则理事会(IASB)发布了《国际财务报告准则第9号——金融工具》(IFRS 9),提出了对金融资产两分类的新规定。文章对两分类在我国金融工具实务中的适用性进行探讨,并结合我国现实情况提出政策建议。     

Accounting for Securitizations: A Comparison of SFAS 140 and IASB 39

This paper examines the accounting for securitizations under US GAAP and international financial reporting standards (IFRS). Using a sample securitization of the Ford Motor Company, we demonstrate substantial differences depending on whether the securitization is recorded following US GAAP or IFRS. Our analysis suggests international convergence of accounting standards will be more challenging as the FASB and IASB begin tackling issues, such as asset securitization, that have important economic consequences and where the differences between US GAAP and IFRS are substantive.     

An interview with IASB Chair Dr. Andreas Barckow

This paper provides an overview of two interviews conducted with Andreas Barckow where he reflected on his outlook for the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) and his role as Chair. The interviews included (1) a discussion of the IASB′s Third Agenda Consultation Feedback Statement, (2) key areas for future collaborations of the IASB and the International Association for Accounting Education and Research (IAAER) directed primarily at building the IASB's Research Capacity, (3) strategic challenges facing the IASB, (4) the formation of the International Sustainability Standards Board (ISSB) including the emerging model for the coexistence of the IASB and the ISSB and (5) the unique position the International Financial Reporting Standards Foundation holds as the only global organization to house both financial accounting reporting and sustainability disclosure standard-setting boards. The interviews also addressed areas where the IAAER can encourage academic research to inform both the IASB and the IAASB and perhaps also the ISSB.     

IFRS: On the Docility of Sophisticated Users in Preserving the Ideal of Comparability

This paper questions the ideal of comparability, which is often mobilized by standard setters when justifying new – or ‘improvement’ to existing – accounting standards. The target of our analysis is constituted by the thoughts of sophisticated users of financial statements when reflecting about International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) implementation in Europe. Drawing on the work of Mary Douglas on purity and Michel Foucault on docility, it is argued and shown that sophisticated users tend to interpret aberrations – that is to say indications of incomparability which confront users in the flow of their professional lives – in ways that allow the ideal of comparability to be preserved. Important consequences ensuing from the docility of users in purifying aberrations are discussed.     

IFRS Policy Changes and the Continuation of National Patterns of IFRS Practice

International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) contain several policy options. This paper examines the choices made in 2008/9 IFRS financial statements by large listed companies from five countries on all the options that are observable. We compare these choices with those that had been made by the same companies in 2005/6, which (except for the German companies) was the year of transition to IFRS. For Australian and UK companies, we find – as expected – that there were few policy changes. However, despite the constraints on policy change within IFRS, we find that French and Spanish companies not only made more changes than the other companies but that they also made more changes after transition than at transition. Further investigation reveals that these findings are largely driven by a small number of topics. One possible explanation for the pattern of these changes is a ‘learning’ process, which is supported by finding that nearly all the post-transition changes made by the French and Spanish companies were away from previous national requirements. However, we consider other possible explanations. We also present the profiles of IFRS practices for 2008/9. Despite the changes in policy from 2005/6, we find clear evidence that national patterns of IFRS practice continue through the period, so that international comparability remains in doubt.     

The impact of accounting reform on accounting quality: Evidence from Nigeria

The effectiveness of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) is dependent on the strength of enforcement of accounting standards in a given country. This study explores the implications of the adoption of IFRS in Nigeria after the enforcement of accounting standards was strengthened. The strengthening of accounting standards enforcement, and the subsequent adoption of IFRS in Nigeria, was recommended by the World Bank to improve the country's regulatory outlook after a capital market crisis in 2007/2008 that was triggered by widespread accounting irregularities. Results indicate that accounting quality declined in Nigeria following the adoption of IFRS; while earnings management increased, timely loss recognition and earnings persistence reduced. Our study contributes to the burgeoning literature on IFRS adoption and concludes that the effect of IFRS adoption is contextual. Therefore, accounting regulatory institutions operating in a similar context to Nigeria should localize IFRS.     

IFRS,financial development and income inequality: An empirical study using mediation analysis

Income inequality continues to be an issue of concern. Early work on economic development suggested that, as a country’s economy grows, incomes would rise and reduce any income disparities. However, there is growing evidence that as countries develop, income inequality actually worsens. Some studies argue that this is the result of financial development and the growth of the financial sector. Although there is a good deal of empirical research on the relationship between financial development and income inequality, there is no prior work that examines how accounting standards, in particular International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), might influence this relationship. This study examines the relationship of IFRS and financial development with income inequality using mediation analysis over the period from 1998 to 2018. The results indicate that the impact of IFRS on income inequality is mediated by financial development. Moreover, there is a direct relationship between IFRS and inequality.     

Accounting for derivatives: An evaluation of reporting practice by UK banks

In 1995, the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA) changed its Generally Accepted Accounting Principles on accounting for joint ventures from permitting a choice between the equity method (EM) and proportionate consolidation (PC) to requiring only PC. More recently, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) has decided to issue a new standard that will eliminate choice between EM and PC and require only EM; but as of October 2010 a new standard was still to be issued. The past Canadian and proposed IASB changes are similar in that choice between the same two reporting methods is removed but differ in the required alternative, PC for Canada and EM for the IASB. In this paper we use a sample of Canadian companies over the period 1985–2003 to study financial reporting for joint ventures. To our knowledge, our Canadian sample is the only one reflecting a reduction of choice in financial reporting methods for joint ventures. Therefore, our results have particular relevance for evaluating the IASB's proposed change. Specifically, we investigate whether firms that use EM between 1985 and 1994 experience a decline in value relevance of key balance sheet amounts such as total assets and liabilities when forced to use PC from 1995 onwards. Since 1995 firms are also required to provide footnote disclosures on their share of joint venture assets and liabilities in addition to revenues, expenses and cash flows. Using these disclosures, we investigate whether disaggregate joint venture assets and liabilities are incrementally and overall value relevant. We find that firms that are forced to switch from EM to PC experience a decline in value relevance of reported assets and liabilities. The firms that use PC for the entire sample period experience no such decline. We also find that joint venture assets and liabilities are incrementally and overall value relevant when disclosures are mandatory from 1995 onwards. Our results show that the removal of choice of financial reporting method does have value-relevance implications, something that is of importance to users. We also find that the requirement of additional disclosure of joint venture assets and liabilities is value relevant, which may offset, to some extent, the costs of the reduction in choice. Our inferences may have implications for a number of jurisdictions across Europe and beyond that are affected by a similar reduction of accounting choice proposed by the IASB.     

The Impact of Mandatory IFRS Adoption on Equity Valuation of Accounting Numbers for Security Investors in the EU

Motivated by the European Union (EU) decision to mandate application of the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) to the consolidated financial statements of all EU listed firms (Regulation (EC) 1606/2002), starting in December 2005, we compare the value relevance of accounting information in 14 European countries in the year prior to and the year of the mandatory adoption of the IFRS. We focus on three accounting information items for which measurements under IFRS are likely to differ considerably from measurements under domestic accounting practices across the EU countries prior to the introduction of the international standards: goodwill, research and development expenses (R&D), and asset revaluation. These three items, selected on an a priori basis, have been shown in previous research to differ in the effect of uncertainty on their future benefits. We use valuation models that include these three variables and in addition the book value of equity and earnings. Overall, our study suggests that the adoption of the IFRS has increased the value relevance of the three accounting numbers for investors in equity securities in the EU. Association tests support our two hypotheses: (1) in the year prior to the mandatory adoption of the IFRS, the incremental value relevance to investors of the three domestic GAAP-based accounting items was greater in countries where the respective domestic standards were more compatible with the IFRS; and (2) the higher the deviation of the three domestic GAAP-based accounting items from their corresponding IFRS values, the greater the incremental value relevance to investors from the switch to IFRS. These associations prevail when considering cross-country differences in the institutional environments, which tend to provide complementary effects.     

International Financial Reporting Standards and Private Firms’ Access to Bank Loans

Prior research has focused on publicly listed firms when examining the economic consequences of adopting International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). This study extends the literature by examining the ability of private firms to attract bank loans through the use of IFRS. Based on firm-level data from 25 countries, we show that private firms that voluntarily use IFRS are associated with a higher propensity to attract debt from foreign banks. We find no such association when examining their relationships with domestic banks. Supplementary analyses show that the results are mainly driven by private firms operating in countries with strong regulatory enforcement. The findings suggest that, conditional on adequate enforcement, the use of IFRS provides useful information for foreign non-relationship banks.     

Building IASB Research Capacity: A Commentary

This Commentary summarizes and remarks on several discussions of the link between academic accounting research and financial reporting standard setting. Our Commentary is prompted by references to building the International Accounting Standards Board's (IASB) research capacity, included in three due process documents: Report of the Trustees' Strategy Review, IFRSs as the Global Standard: Setting a Strategy for the Foundation's Second Decade; Agenda Consultation 2011; and Feedback Statement: Agenda Consultation 2011. Pursuant to its mission, the International Association for Accounting Education and Research (IAAER) has undertaken activities, including hosting two roundtables, related to the link between academic accounting research (and researchers) and the IASB's standard‐setting activities. We discuss the main issues addressed and themes emerging from the IAAER roundtables including whether academic research is relevant to standard setters; types of academic research, and areas of inquiry, that would be most relevant to accounting standard setters; perceptions on why academic research is not more useful to standard setters and challenges to academic researcher's engagement in standard setting. We summarize the IAAER Committee response to the consultation paper, Status of Trustees' Strategy Review. Finally, we identify areas where we believe academia can assist in building a dedicated research capacity at the IASB and note specific areas where future academic research is needed to inform the IASB.     

Environmental management accounting in Europe: current practice and future potential

Abstract

We examine the impact of managerial financial reporting incentives on accounting quality changes around International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) adoption. A novel feature of our single-country setting based on Germany is that voluntary IFRS adoption was allowed and common before IFRS became mandatory. We exploit the revealed preferences in the choice to (not) adopt IFRS voluntarily to determine whether the management of individual firms had incentives to adopt IFRS. For comparability with previous studies, we assess accounting quality through multiple constructs such as earnings management, timely loss recognition, and value relevance. While most existing literature documents accounting quality improvements following IFRS adoption, we find that improvements are confined to firms with incentives to adopt, that is, voluntary adopters. We also find that firms that resist IFRS adoption have closer connections with banks and inside shareholders, consistent with lower incentives for more comprehensive accounting standards. The overall results indicate that reporting incentives dominate accounting standards in determining accounting quality. We conclude that it is unwarranted to infer from evidence on accounting quality changes around voluntary adoption that IFRS per se improves accounting quality.     

The Value Relevance of Accounting Income Reported by DAX-30 German Companies

International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) are required for consolidated financial statements of all European Union (EU) publicly traded companies starting from the December 2005 fiscal year end [Regulation (EC)]; and endorsed by the International Organization of Securities Commission (IOSCO) for its member countries beginning in 2000. We examine the challenges and benefits, including value relevance, of the adoption of IFRS by DAX‐30 companies, the German premium stock market. Based on a survey sent to DAX‐30 company executives, we find most companies agreeing that implementing IFRS should improve the comparability of financial statements. The complex nature, high cost of adopting and lack of guidance for implementing IFRS, as well as increased volatility of earnings after adopting IFRS, are listed among the most important challenges of conversion to IFRS. We use regression to measure another benefit: the value relevance of book values of earnings and equity in explaining market values of DAX‐30 companies during the period 1995–2004. Using 265 observations, we find that adopting IFRS or US Generally Accepted Accounting Principles or cross‐listing on the New York Stock Exchange significantly increases the value relevance of earnings relative to market prices.     

On the Relationship between Voluntary Disclosure,Earnings Smoothing and the Value-Relevance of Earnings: The Case of Switzerland

Abstract

This paper examines whether voluntary disclosure by Swiss firms constrains the use of discretionary accruals to smooth earnings, and explores the effect of voluntary disclosure on the value relevance of earnings. We focus on Swiss firms because Switzerland's financial reporting system provides managers with extensive discretion in corporate disclosure, and there are important variations in the level of information provided in their annual reports. We consider that managers can choose two different ways to voluntarily convey information, either through the quality and quantity of annual report disclosure or, through compliance with International Accounting Standards (IAS)/International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) or US Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). Relying on a simultaneous equations approach, our results suggest that Swiss firms use discretionary accruals to smooth earnings. However, this relation is reduced for firms that voluntarily disclose more information in their annual report or comply with IAS/IFRS or US GAAP. Moreover, we show that discretionary accruals of high disclosers or of firms voluntarily complying with IAS/IFRS or US GAAP receive a lower valuation weight.     

The Effect of Accounting Education and National Culture on Accounting Judgments: A Comparative Study of Anglo-Celtic and Chinese Culture

Countries adopting International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) need to educate and train their professional accountants so that they are able to interpret and apply IFRS in a consistent manner. This study examines the effect of national culture and education on the judgments of Australian (Anglo-Celtic) and Chinese final year undergraduate accounting students in Australia. It seeks to understand whether culture influences student interpretation and application of uncertainty expressions, which are used as recognition and disclosure thresholds in IFRS. Results obtained on the cultural dimensions of Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism, Power Distance, Masculinity and Long-Term Orientation provide evidence that Chinese students exhibit greater conservatism and secrecy compared to Australian students. The results of the study indicate that national culture has a significant effect on the judgments of accounting students when interpreting and applying selected IFRS containing uncertainty expressions. The results also imply that educational similarity does not moderate the effect of culture in influencing the judgments of accounting students. An important implication of the study is that regulators and standard-setters involved in the international convergence of accounting standards need to pay greater attention to cultural factors that may result in a difference in the interpretation and application of IFRS.     

Determinants and Valuation Implications of Compulsory Stock Option Disclosures in a Weak Regulatory Setting—The Case of France

Using a sample of listed French firms in 2005, the year of mandatory IFRS adoption in the European Union (EU), we investigate the determinants of disclosure compliance of stock option expenses under IFRS 2, Share‐based Payment. Stock options are a popular means of executive compensation in France relative to other EU countries. Prior to 2005, French accounting standards and corporate governance regulations did not require recognition of option expense amounts and required minimal supplementary disclosures. There was also a perception that enforcement was imperfect, in particular with respect to IFRS 2. Given this setting, we explore what factors influence the willingness of firms to follow compulsory IFRS requirements in a weak regulatory setting. We find that overall compliance with IFRS 2 disclosure requirements increases with U.S. and U.K. institutional ownership, U.S. cross‐listing, provision of English language statements, and decreases with CEO and family ownership of the firm. We also investigate how stock market prices are affected by the recognition and disclosure of stock option expenses according to IFRS 2 in this regulatory setting and find that investors value option expenses positively, particularly when accompanied by high‐disclosure compliance. Our findings have implications for other jurisdictions in the process of adopting or converging to IFRS.     

Formal Participation in the IASB's Due Process of Standard Setting: A Multi-issue/Multi-period Analysis

This paper sets out to enquire about the nature of constituents' participation in the IASB's due process in terms of representation (constituents' diversity and characteristics) and drivers to participate. We choose to adopt a multi-issue/multi-period approach to investigate constituents' formal participation. An analysis of comment letters sent directly to the IASB over the period 2002–2006, reveals that preparers sent most letters followed by the accounting profession and standard setters. With regard to timing, we find that preparers concentrate their participation efforts at a later stage in the process compared to the other constituents, who react earlier. Formal indirect participation in the IASB's due process by submitting comment letters to EFRAG is infrequently used by European constituents. In those cases where constituents exert influence to both IASB and EFRAG, they often use exactly the same comment letter. Concentrating on the drivers to participate, the data reveal that preparers, accountants and standard setters react significantly more when proposals have a major impact on the accounting numbers of a company. Users, stock exchanges and their supervisory authorities write significantly more comment letters when disclosure issues are at stake. Finally, participating preparers in the IASB's due process are larger and more profitable than non-participating preparers.     

The Role of International Financial Reporting Standards in Accounting Quality: Evidence from the European Union

Previous studies on the effect of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) on accounting quality often have difficulties to control for confounding factors on accounting quality. As a result, the observed changes in accounting quality could not be attributed mainly to IFRS. We use a unique research setting to address this issue by comparing the accounting quality of publicly listed companies in 15 member states of the European Union (EU) before and after the full adoption of IFRS in 2005. We use five indicators as proxies for accounting quality. We find that the majority of accounting quality indicators improved after IFRS adoption in the EU. That is, there is less of managing earnings toward a target, a lower magnitude of absolute discretionary accruals, and higher accruals quality. But our results also show that firms engage in more earnings smoothing and recognize large losses in a less timely manner in post‐IFRS periods. In addition, we examine the effects of institutional variables on financial reporting quality. Our contribution to the literature is that we show the improved accounting quality is attributable to IFRS, rather than changes in managerial incentives, institutional features of capital markets, and general business environment, etc.     

Assessing the Value Relevance of Accounting Data After the Introduction of IFRS in Europe

Since 2005, European‐listed companies have been required to prepare their consolidated financial statements in accordance with the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). We examine whether value relevance increased following the introduction of IFRS, using a sample of 3,721 companies listed on five European stock exchanges: Frankfurt, Madrid, Paris, London, and Milan. We find mixed evidence of an increase in value relevance. However, the influence of earnings on share price increased following the introduction of IFRS in Germany, France, and the United Kingdom, while the influence of book value of equity decreased (except for the United Kingdom).