New challenges in professional cleaning: hygiene quality and monitoring of surfaces in private domestic homes

In many countries, changes in the pattern of working lives and ageing of the population increases the need for professional cleaning in private domestic homes. The objective of this study was to obtain basic knowledge concerning professional home cleaning. The study consisted of two parts. First, cleanability of surfaces contaminated with microbiological and organic soils was examined in the laboratory using cleaning cloths, detergents and rapid detection methods with potential for use in conjunction with professional cleaning in private homes. Second, hygienic conditions in three households were screened using the same rapid detection methods as in the laboratory experiments. According to the laboratory study, the cleaning efficiency of the non‐woven cloth was clearly poorer than that of the cleaning cloths containing microfibers. There were differences between the efficacy of the cleaning agents in removal of protein and microbiological soils. Despite the differences between surface topography observed with scanning electron microscopy, differences between the cleanability of the three examined surface materials (steel and two plastic surfaces) were small. In hygiene monitoring, the highest levels of total aerobic bacterial counts were detected in the plughole of the sink, on the eating table in kitchens and along the edge of the toilet washbowl and the cover of toilet seats. Low amounts of Enterobacteriaceae indicating faecal contamination were detected in the toilet and bathroom after cleaning. Moulds were not detected in any of the three households, and the amounts of yeasts were low. Detection methods, microbiological dipslides and the protein test, were well suited to the laboratory study. Furthermore, they complemented each other in the hygiene monitoring. The information obtained will be used for development of better practices in professional home cleaning. Good quality management in professional home cleaning and the cleanliness of surfaces in homes are important factors affecting comfort and safety.     

Hygienic quality of cleaning cloths used in professional cleaning of private domestic homes

The objective of this laboratory study was to obtain general background information concerning professional cleaning in private domestic homes. The specific aim was to examine the effect of storage and washing of dirty cloths on their hygienic status. The effect of storage on the number of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in cleaning cloths was examined using current or potential materials for professional cleaning in private homes. The bacterial content increased in microfibre cloths in some cases during a normal working day (8 h storage), and more clearly after 16 h or 48 h of storage. Disposable fibre cloths did not promote the growth of microbes as well as microfibre cloths. The effect of detergents on the hygienic status of cleaning cloths was unclear: some cleaning agents appeared to enhance the growth of bacteria, while others did not. In many cases, organic substances, i.e. protein added to the cloths, enhanced the growth of microbes. Washing of microfibre cloths at 60°C reduced the numbers of bacteria on the cloths but did not remove them entirely. Storage of dirty cloths before washing will probably cause difficulties in the proper washing of the cloths, and thus negatively affect their capacity for hygienic results in cleaning surfaces, as well as presenting a risk to the safety of the worker. Cleaning cloths should be washed as soon as possible after use: washing after each working day, at the latest, is recommended. Furthermore, cleaning cloths should be selected for professional use to allow washing at hot temperatures. The findings of this study could be used for training in professional home cleaning. They also provide valuable information for other branches of cleaning, including consumer use in households.     

Global consumer study to identify water wastage in the usage of automatic dishwashers

In dishcleaning automatic dishwashers do clearly win over manual cleaning when it comes to efficiency: Resources can be saved without compromising on hygiene. But mistakes in the usage behaviour can equalize saving advantages. Consumers in nine countries, covering different regions of the world, were asked about their dishcleaning behaviour to identify if this household work is done in a resource saving way. By analysing mistakes in the current behaviour, the potential of water savings shall be estimated.     

Expected and reported division of responsibility of household tasks among older wives in two residential settings

Literature on sex roles encompasses numerous studies on the division of responsibility in late-life marriages. Some older wives report that they continue to assume responsibility for mos: household chores and they actually perform most tasks. Other wives claim that following retirement, husbands increase their participation within the household arena. However, the increase tends to be in the level of activity involvement rather than in assuming responsibility for new or non-traditional chores. The trend toward egalitarianism in later life, especially for happy couples, is documented by numerous studies. It appears that while role expectations are less gender-specific among older people, they tend to follow the patterns established during middle-age. However, the research is not conclusive. No analysis has compared different living environments of older couples. A sample (n = 244) or older wives (mean age 72 years) living in two different residential settings were questioned via a mailed survey about their responsibility and behaviours regarding 12 household tasks: cooking meals, washing dishes, doing yard work, washing clothes, maintaining the car, writing letters, scheduling family events, getting or earning money, cleaning house, shopping, undertaking household repairs and making family decisions. High scores suggest a non-traditional approach to sex-role tasks, while low scores suggest egalitarian relationships. The views that wives have of division of responsibility of household tasks is explored: who should take responsibility for tasks and who does the tasks? Variables previously found to influence sex-role beliefs are examined. In particular, relationships between sex roles and marital quality, length of marriage, family income, frequency of interaction with children, residential environment and health are presented.     

The environmental burden imposed by the family's activities

Calculations of the environmental burden from a model family's consumption show that family activities associated with eating make up more than one-third of the family's total consumption of resources and discharges to the surroundings. Car transport and residential heating together also account for one-third of the family's resource consumption and discharges to the surroundings. The remaining third of resource consumption and discharges to the environment relates especially to the consumption of goods during leisure activities around the home, clothing, hygiene and health as well as cleaning.     

A microbiological survey of communal kitchens used by undergraduate students

The majority of food poisoning cases occur in the domestic environment as a result of inadequate hygiene practices. The possibility of food safety errors may be increased in domestic kitchens that are shared. However, there is very little information concerning the hygiene of these kitchens. This study investigates the microbial load of key sites in six student communal kitchens. In addition, hygiene was evaluated visually and questionnaires were used to assess the hygiene practices of the kitchen users. Results show that visual hygiene assessments are not a good indicator of microbial contamination, which, in this study, reveal poor levels of hygiene. Food safety errors were commonly made by users of the kitchens and their food hygiene practices suggest limited food safety knowledge and/or an absence of feelings of responsibility for the hygiene standard of the kitchen.     

“The Unbearable Lightness of Cleaning”: Representations of Domestic Practice and Products in Good Housekeeping Magazine (UK): 1951–2001

In this paper we begin to open the black box that constitutes the organisation of domestic cleaning and consumption in the latter half of the twentieth century. We focus specifically on change and continuity in the manner in which cleaning practices and cleaning products are represented in the UK woman's magazine Good Housekeeping, in the late modern period. After a discussion of the modern history of cleanliness, we proceed with a rationale for why this magazine was chosen for our analysis, followed by a summary of our methodology. We then argue that three phases of representation may be delineated in the time period we investigated. The first phase, which is apparent in the 1951 and 1961 issues, we have named “pride in domestic practice” and it covers a period when, what we call “the women's lobby”, speaks in a uniform voice about the tasks of the housewife and the purpose of domestic cleaning. The second phase, manifest in the 1971 and 1981 issues, is termed “domestic dreaming”, and it heralds a period when Good Housekeeping calls its readership to dream about the potentials of a transformed consumer culture. The third phase, which is evident in some respects in 1981, but which is more clearly present in 1991 and 2001, we have called “modern advising in a late modern world”. During this period, Good Housekeeping settles into a new role as a modern advisor of cleaning products and practices within the context of a world that poses significant complexities. Our discussion also focuses on how three values of cleanliness; that associated with germs, aesthetics and efficiency/ease are present in the magazine. Our analysis is contextualised in relation to the cultural silencing of cleanliness in this period and related to social and cultural changes associated with feminism and consumer culture.     

Comparison of the washing efficiencies of a laboratory washing device (Launder‐Ometer) and of automatic household washing machines with horizontal drums

The objective of this study was to compare the cleaning result of a laboratory washing machine – Launder‐Ometer (LOM) – with that of drum‐type household washing machines, using detergent without bleaching agent, standard soiled fabrics and a colorimeter for assessing the washing result. The mechanical effect applied to the laundry in the household washers was not obtained in the LOM by increasing mechanical impact or the number of metal balls. Extended washing time did not improve removal of blood soil in the LOM, although it did increase removal of mayonnaise soil containing chlorophyll. However, in practice a washing time of 60–85 min is relatively long for a laboratory device considering the claimed time‐saving nature of these devices. None of the examined parameters affected removal of a red wine soil containing tannins, which was poor in all test combinations both in the household machines and in the laboratory washing machine. Bleaching agent is recommended for removal of this type of soil. In conclusion, conformity between washing results of the laboratory washing machine and the drum‐type household washing machines depends on the type of soiled test fabrics and other parameters in the washing process. Removal of blood soil differed most between the household machines and the LOM.     

Scope of improvement in water usage efficiency in manual dishwashing: A multicountry study by questionnaire survey

Over recent decades, water conservation have become increasingly an utmost important issue for debate, and this includes the domestic sector. Reducing demand water by improving the efficiency of water use in domestic sector requires an understanding of how water is used and in what ways water savings can be realized. The focus of this global, web‐based, consumer questionnaire survey was to analyze individual consumer attitudes towards using water in manual dishwashing and understand the likelihood of a prospect of changing the daily manual dishwashing method resulting to a more efficient domestic usage of water. This study was designed to investigate the manual dishwashing technique used in the 5249 households of nine different countries ‐ China, Germany, Italy, Russia, Indonesia, Brazil, India, South Africa and Argentina. Besides socio‐demographics, technical questions like cleaning steps, hygiene questions motivational question, environmental awareness questions, questions on payment for water and electricity, questions on information sources about household work were included in the study. It was found that the awareness to conserve water was common among the Asian participants but it necessarily was not practiced in the households as individual washing of dishes was found to be quite high. Among the many outcomes, important one was that ‘running tap method’ was found to be most prevalent (86%) among Russian participants, complimenting their detached approach towards conserving domestic water usage. In South American countries like Brazil (66%) and Argentina (51%), high occurrence of ‘running tap rinse’ was found to be a common practice, confirming the lack of conscious use of water in manual dishwashing in the subcontinent. Based on the overall responses, awareness of a new and efficient technique of manual dishwashing could be propagated through the most voted mediums of Internet (81%) and TV (69%).     

Factors affecting households’ seafood purchasing decisions in Auckland,New Zealand: an empirical analysis

This paper uses the binary choice model to identify the factors that are significantly influencing the household purchase decisions of seafood products for home consumption in Auckland, New Zealand. It is found that ‘quality’ and ‘cooking easiness’ are the main product attributes that significantly influence households’ choices of seafood in Auckland. Also, the representative household has shown a strong preference for fresh and other alternative seafood products, including processed, smoked and canned, over frozen products. Retail outlets are found to be more attractive to the household purchasing seafood for home consumption. The New Zealand seafood industry may find this baseline study useful as a guide to developing future research structure on the domestic market.     

A comparison of the efficacy of chef knife-cleaning methods

Improperly cleaned and sanitized chef knives present a potential contamination risk and a source for foodborne illness. This study compared the efficacies of two cleaning methods (three-compartment manual dishwashing and sanitizer wiping) at removing food soils from contaminated chef knives. Knife-washing procedures were standardized after observing knife-cleaning behavior in a kitchen. Adenosine triphosphate bioluminescence was used to measure levels of organic soils. Results indicated that the three-compartment manual dishwashing was more effective at removing food soils from knife surfaces than the sanitizer wiping (P < .0001). This study also assessed the influence of other factors on the soil removal efficacies.     

催化裂化装置挖潜增效可采用的技术

本文结合国内外催化裂化装置改造的具体情况,提出了催化裂化装置挖潜增效的措施。重点介绍了选用新型催化裂化化剂及其再生技术、采用高效设备节能降耗、采用新工艺对老装置进行扩能改造以及提高改造技术水平的其它配套技术。并对国内装置挖潜改造提出了看法和建议,以供企业在进行催化裂化装置改造时参考。     

PRODUCTIVE TIME OF HOUSEHOLD HEADS

This study is an analysis of the utility value of time. Time is viewed on a productivity continuum with activities that result in measurable products such as income or home sewing at one extreme of the continuum and activities such as sleep at the other extreme. The use of time by unemployed and employed heads of households was the basis for this analysis. Four measures of time were constructed to determine the amount of time spent in market, household, leisure and personal activities. Unemployed heads of households spent more time in household and leisure activities than employed heads. Assuming that household activities have productive value, time spent in child care, shopping, house cleaning, etc., were viewed as having utility value for the household. Thus, reallocated time had utility value for the household. In addition, it was found that a significant relationship existed between employment status and use of time, regardless of position on the productivity continuum. From this study comes a better understanding of how time is reallocated during unemployment so that the economic loss for the household as well as the economy can be minimized.     

Ethno-national ties and international business opportunity exploitation: The role of environmental factors

This paper examines the effect of ethnic populations on international opportunity exploitation at a societal, or national, level. Past research shows a relationship between ethnic ties and international opportunity at an individual level; however, little is known about the role of ethnic ties and international opportunity at a national level, which is called ‘ethno-national ties’ in this study. In order to acquire in-depth knowledge of this subject, we studied a population of Chinese who are living outside their home country and applied contingency theory principles to investigate environmental boundary conditions that affect this population. Data collected from Chinese exporters indicate an overall positive effect of ethno-national ties on international opportunity exploitation—an effect that is influenced by three moderating variables: technological turbulence, psychic distance, and export barriers. Technological turbulence and export barriers weaken the effect of ethno-national ties on international opportunity exploitation while psychic distance enhances the effect.     

投资增长与居民消费增长间相互影响的分析

针对我国近年来出现的内需不足问题,本文通过建立模型,对政府投资、民间投资、居民消费增长之间相互影响关系做了简要分析,提出经济要想持续健康地发展,投资增长与居民消费增长必须同步;投资增长不能只为了促进经济增长,而应该带动居民消费,提高居民生活水平等观点。     

浅谈家政服务的职业素养——以长乐市家政服务队伍为例

在21世纪这个各方面都追求更快更高发展的时代,第三产业更是在迅速的发展与创新,经济的高速发展为家政行业的发展奠定了物质基础。在企业不断向国际化趋势发展的同时,国家更是实施了很多强有力的措施,为家政行业的稳步发展提供了良好的生存环境。以福建省福州市长乐市家政服务职业素养为研究对象,考虑到调查人群的特殊性,抽样调查采取分群随机抽样,分别在吴航街道、航城街道、漳港街道、营前街道各发放问卷70份,对福建省长乐市家政职业素养现状及存在的问题进行分析研究,并提出了相关对策和建议。     

Does poverty lead to non-fatal unintentional injuries in rural Vietnam?

The aim of this study was to identify associations between poverty at the household level and unintentional injury morbidity. A cohort consisting of 24,874 person-time episodes, representing 24,776 people living in 5,801 households (classified into rich, middle income and poor by local authorities in 1999) was followed during 2000, in order to identify and assess non-fatal unintentional injuries. Incidence rate ratios were calculated using a Poisson regression model. The results showed that poverty was a risk factor for unintentional injuries generally. When looking at different types of injury, poverty was a risk for home, work and "other" injuries, protective for school injuries, while the risk of traffic injuries was not affected. The results also showed that communes in mountainous areas were at higher risk for home, work and other injuries. Overall, poverty was associated with unintentional injury morbidity. However, the relationship varied by sex, age and type of injury. Specifically, poverty increased the risk for children and elderly people being injured at home, and for adults (15-59 years) being affected by work injuries.     

An investigation into the effects of domestic cleaning on upholstery covering materials backcoated with fire retardants

Abstract: The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of domestic cleaning on upholstery covering materials backcoated with fire retardants. The results are an indicator of the effectiveness of legislative controls for upholstery. A questionnaire and pilot study were used to devise standard treatment procedures reflecting popular domestic cleaning methods. Samples of material were subjected to each treatment procedure followed by testing to the match test in BS 5852:Pt 1: 1979, over filling material specified in Part 1 of Schedule 5 of the Furniture and Furnishings (Fire) (Safety) Regulations 1988. To provide a standard, materials were also subjected to the water soak procedure in BS 5651: 1978, followed by testing to the match test. The results indicate that domestic cleaning methods affect backcoated fire retardants in such a way that current furniture legislation does not adequately provide for the level of durability required in practice. In addition, evidence was gained via a retail survey which suggests that consumers are not provided with sufficient aftercare information when purchasing new furniture.     

对低碳经济时代我国发展碳金融的思考

当前,我国需要发展碳金融来实现减排的突破,然而,节能减排工作的最大难点在于企业节能减排技改能力不足、技改成本高昂。建立碳金融市场,为国际买家与我国企业交易搭建平台,可以吸引更多的国际力量参与我国清洁发展机制（CDM）项目合作,有利于对国外先进技术的吸收和利用。政府部门应制定碳金融的宏观政策,加快碳金融创新步伐,培养碳金融专门人才,组建碳金融业务机构和团队,加强碳金融的国际协调与合作,积极应对国内外经济和金融环境的发展变化,从而为低碳经济的发展提供保障和支持。     

Aesthetics in displacement – Hmong,Somali and Mexican home‐making practices in Minnesota

Personalizing a residential environment has long been recognized among the dimensions of home. Little research though has focused on understanding the home‐making process of aesthetic construction under conditions of displacement. Questions still abound: What does the notion of aesthetics entail in displacement? Do immigrant groups construct a sense of difference in the home, and if so, how? And, what can impede their efforts? Answering these questions sheds light on the opportunities that arise when interdisciplinary connections between architectural, housing and consumer studies are formed. Using data from in‐depth interviews conducted in the homes of three displaced groups now living in Minnesota (Hmong, Somali and Mexicans), this paper explores the above questions and proposes theoretical and practical directions for supporting diverse housing needs. Delving into the living and socializing areas, the discussion uncovers the material and immaterial forms that aesthetic constructions can take: from decorative objects to colours, textures, materials, light levels, furniture placement and type as well as sound and smell. Interviewees varied in the number of cultural expressions they employed and degree to which they invested time, energy and funds to personalize their homes. Their efforts though were often purposive: a means to connect to a homeland, pass down one's cultural traditions to future generations, foster alliances with others from the same cultural group and a form of constructing difference. Particularly insightful are the impediments those interviewed endured in constructing an aesthetic they resonated with. Factors like spatiality, religious beliefs, regulations, income limitations, construction norms and availability of objects to purchase often suppressed their attempts to transform the spaces they lived in into places they can relate to, threatening in the process the group's cultural identity definition and creating stress in their lives. Given that home‐making is found to be inextricably tied to consumer studies through behaviours like purchasing products, the paper closes with the implications of rethinking aesthetics as well as directions for future research.