我国两部门劳动生产率增长及国际比较（1978-2005）——巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应与人民币实际汇率关系的重新考察

依据巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应假说，一国经济追赶伴随的可贸易部门劳动生产率的“相对相对增长”会派生本币实际汇率升值趋势。本文对改革开放以来我国可贸易与不可贸易部门劳动生产率各自增长、相对增长、国际比较增长等指标进行系统估测，发现上述结构性生产率指标与人民币实际汇率之间的关系存在与巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应假说推论一致的经验证据；利用人均或劳均产出等总量性生产率指标检验这一理论对人民币实际汇率的解释力，则存在理论假说变量与度量指标选择不兼容的问题。     

巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应假说:研究进展及其启示

现有文献分别从引入需求方传导机制,引入不完全市场竞争框架,完善经济增长与实际汇率升值的传导机制,以及引入一系列宏观经济变量四方面对巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应假说进行了修正和完善。但对两部门的划分、生产率的选择以及计量检验方法的运用,仍存有争论,包括人民币实际汇率在内的绝大多数检验结果为巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应的存在提供了支持的证据,不过也有一些检验对其提出了质疑。在研究我国经济增长与人民币实际汇率的调整和变动趋势中,应结合我国实际国情,对传统的巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应假说进行拓展,从而对人民币实际有效汇率是否具有巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应进行实证分析。     

人民币实际汇率变动趋势分析——基于巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应

本文结合我国二元经济结构的特殊国情,在对标准的巴拉萨-萨缪尔森模型拓展的基础上,运用我国与美国的数据对人民币实际汇率的变动趋势进行了实证检验.蛄果表明,在标准的和拓展的两种模型下,人民币实际汇率均存在显著的巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应,即我国与美国间可贸易部门和不可贸易部门生产率的差异决定了两国间相对物价水平的差异.其中,拓展模型更加适应我国实际国情,其效应比标准模型显著得多.巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应假说的分析框架对揭示人民币实际汇率升值的必然趋势有很强的解释作用.     

巴拉萨-萨缪尔森命题研究综述

经济增长与实际汇率之间的关系,是一个极其重要和基础性的研究领域,而巴拉萨-萨缪尔森命题则是该领域最具影响力的理论假说之一。该命题预言,经济高速增长的国家通常会出现实际汇率持续升值的现象。巴拉萨-萨缪尔森命题提出以后,出现了大量的相关研究文献,有些文献从理论上对其进行了补充和修正,更多的文献则是对这一命题进行实证检验。实证检验的结果绝大部分支持巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应的存在,但也有一些检验的结果对该命题提出了质疑。     

我国两部门劳动生产率增长及国际比较(1978-2005)-巴拉萨萨缪尔森效应与人民币实际汇率关系的重新考察

依据巴拉萨萨缪尔森效应假说,一国经济追赶伴随的可贸易部门劳动生产率的“相对相对增长”会派生本币实际汇率升值趋势。本文对改革开放以来我国可贸易与不可贸易部门劳动生产率各自增长、相对增长、国际比较增长等指标进行系统估测,发现上述结构性生产率指标与人民币实际汇率之间的关系存在与巴拉萨萨缪尔森效应假说推论一致的经验证据;利用人均或劳均产出等总量性生产率指标检验这一理论对人民币实际汇率的解释力,则存在理论假说变量与度量指标选择不兼容的问题。     

人民币实际汇率与中国两部门生产率差异的关系——基于巴拉萨—萨缪尔森效应的实证分析

长期实际汇率主要取决于经济的供给面,即生产率的变化,这一思想体现在巴拉萨—萨缪尔森效应的模型中。文章从巴拉萨—萨缪尔森效应的理论出发选择合适的计量模型,然后以制造业和服务业分别表示贸易品部门和非贸易品部门,通过差分回归模型和协整检验来分析人民币实际汇率与中国两部门间生产率差异之间的关系,回归结果符合巴拉萨—萨缪尔森效应的结论。在1980~2004年间,人民币实际汇率的变动趋势与中国两部门间的生产率差异变化趋势基本相符:非贸易品部门生产率提高幅度大时,人民币趋向于贬值;而贸易品部门生产率提高幅度大时,人民币实际汇率趋向于升值。     

转轨国家的实际汇率变动

本文采用时间序列和协整方法验证“巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应”在转轨国家的情形，测量了19个转轨国家和中国实际汇率升值与其劳动生产率提高的相关性，也即“巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应”在这些国家实际汇率决定中的作用。基本的结论是；转轨国家实际汇率的运动基本上都经历了贬值-升值-稳定的过程。     

人民币实际汇率与中国经济增长的关系研究——基于边限检验法的巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应检验

以Faria和Leon—Ledesma简化的巴拉萨-萨缪尔森模型为基础,运用Pesaran、Shin和Smith的边限检验法实证分析了1980—2007年期间人民币实际汇率与中国经济增长之间是否存在长期稳定关系。研究发现：改革开放以来,中国经济增长并没有伴随着人民币实际汇率的升值,巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应在中国不成立。产生这一结果的原因在于：对高估的汇率进行贬值是中国经济高速增长的前奏,非市场化的劳动力市场阻断了BS效应中价格传递机制的发生。但是,如果中国经济保持较高的增长率,人民币实际汇率在长期中将经历一个升值过程。     

生产率、消费需求与实际汇率的决定——基于发展中国家（或地区）的经验证据

生产率增长、消费需求变动、国际收支状况等经济基本面因素是影响实际汇率变动的重要因素。通过对22个发展中国家和地区进行实证研究后发现,消费需求的变化对实际汇率的决定有着明显的作用,消费需求上升将使得实际汇率升值,下降将会使得实际汇率趋于贬值。虽然巴拉萨一萨缪尔森效应存在,但是作用并不明显。在我国,长期消费需求不足是导致人民币实际汇率持续走低的重要原因,虽然巴拉萨一萨缪尔森效应在我国也存在．但是人民币实际汇率仍然长期被低估。     

汇率的非线性波动与巴拉萨--萨缪尔森效应

将非线性平滑转移模型与巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应相结合,使用实际汇率对相对生产率进行回归,并在回归残差的基础上建立STAR模型。结果显示残差存在非线性波动,并且具有两个转换函数的STAR模型能够较好地反映残差的非线性波动特征。证明交易成本、市场参与者的异质性等因素影响了人民币汇率的形成,同时也说明巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应影响了人民币实际汇率的均衡值。     

Productivity,real exchange rate,and aggregate demand: An empirical exercise applied to Brazil from 1960 to 2011

This research analyzes, from a post Kaleckian perspective, the interactions among the aggregate demand, the real exchange rate, productivity, and real wages in the Brazilian economy from 1960 to 2011. It adopts the longstanding perspective that demand is the driver of capital accumulation and economic growth. The research comprises the following steps: (a) a critical assessment of the growth regime literature, with a particular emphasis on issues related to productivity and the real exchange rate; (b) understanding the relationship between the real exchange rate and the productivity and growth regimes; (c) proposing a theoretical model that relates the real exchange rate, productivity, and the growth regime; and (d) an empirical test of the interaction between the real exchange rate, productivity, and the growth regime. Theoretically the study develops a model showing the interactions between the aggregate demand, the real exchange rate, productivity, and real wages. Furthermore, this research attempts to address the lack of theoretical and empirical studies about the relationship between the aggregate demand, the real exchange rate, productivity and real wages.     

Exchange rate uncertainty and the level of investment in selected South-east Asian countries

The effect of real exchange rate uncertainty on aggregate private investment in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand is examined using time series data from 1972–2000. Since the use of non-stationary time series data may produce spurious results, the data series are tested for stationarity using the augmented Dickey–Fuller and Phillips–Perron tests. After establishing the stationarity of the data series, cointegration tests are performed. The cointegration test results reject the hypothesis of no cointegration. Therefore, an error correction model is developed and estimated. The estimated results point to an inconclusive empirical relationship between real exchange rate volatility and aggregate private investment.     

Fertility and the real exchange rate

Abstract .  We use a quinquennial data set covering 87 countries between 1975 and 2005 to investigate empirically the relationship between fertility and the real effective exchange rate. Theoretically, a country experiencing a decline in its fertility rate can be expected to experience a real depreciation. We test and confirm this hypothesis, controlling for a number of other potential determinants. We find a statistically significant and robust link between fertility and the exchange rate. Our point-estimate is that a decline in the fertility rate of one child per woman is associated with a depreciation of approximately 15% in the real effective exchange rate.     

Convenience yield and real exchange rate dynamics: A present-value interpretation

In this paper, we empirically investigate the relationship between the convenience yield of government bonds and the real exchange rates using monthly data from 1999 to 2018. We extend the conventional models, based on the present-value relationship between the real exchange rate and economic fundamentals, while explicitly considering the role of the convenience yield. Empirical results suggest that our present-value models can capture the dynamic properties of the real exchange rate documented in the literature, including high persistence, excess volatility and excess co-movement compared with real interest rate differentials. We also find that the sum of expected convenience yields significantly drives real exchange rate movements. Moreover, we find that foreign exchange swap market friction also plays a role in explaining real exchange rates. Finally, we find that monetary policy at the zero lower bound may be essential in real exchange rate modelling.     

Growth,Distribution, and External Constraints: A Post-Kaleckian Model Applied to Brazil

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this research is to analyze whether the Brazilian economy behaved under a wage-led or profit-led regime between 1960 and 2011, considering a Post-Kaleckian model in a context of external constraints. The time span is limited by data availability (i.e., 2011). To answer the question of whether the Brazilian economy works under a wage-led or profit-led regime, we propose a simple Post-Kaleckian model. The model suggests that a profit-led regime is more probable for Brazil. Moreover, a wage-led regime occurs when a balance of payments constrained growth model is taken into consideration. Likewise, the real exchange rate has a positive impact on economic growth through the export channel. This result is a novelty in the recent literature about the relationship between real exchange rate and economic growth within a Post-Kaleckian model. The Brazilian economy was chosen as it is one of the biggest economies in Latin America.     

Real exchange rates and real interest rate differentials: A present value interpretation

Although the real exchange rate-real interest rate (RERI) relationship is central to most open economy macroeconomic models, empirical support for the relationship is generally found to be rather weak. In this paper we re-investigate the RERI relationship using bilateral US real exchange rate data spanning the period 1978-2007. Instead of testing one particular model, we build on Campbell and Shiller [1987. Cointegration tests of present-value models. Journal of Political Economy 95, 1062-1088] to propose a metric of the economic significance of the relationship. Our empirical results provide robust evidence that the RERI link is economically significant and that the real interest rate differential is a reasonable approximation of the expected rate of depreciation over longer horizons.     

A stable demand for money despite financial crisis: the case of Venezuela

The demand for broad money in Venezuela is investigated over a period of financial crisis and substantial exchange rate fluctuations. The analysis shows that there exist a long-run relationship between real money, real income, inflation, the exchange rate and an interest rate differential, that remains stable over major policy changes and large shocks. The long-run properties emphasize that both inflation and exchange rate depreciations have negative effects on real money demand, whereas a higher interest rate differential has positive effects. The long-run relationship is finally embedded in a dynamic equilibrium correction model with constant parameters. These results have implications for a policy-maker. In particular, they emphasize that with a high degree of currency substitution in Venezuela, monetary aggregates will be very sensitive to changes in the economic environment.     

Elections, exchange rates and reform in Latin America

In this paper, we study the link between real exchange rate (RER) depreciation and elections in Latin America. Our contribution is threefold. First, we employ a statistical model that takes into account the pervasive conditional heteroskedasticity found in financial data and includes a wide range of macroeconomic variables as regressors. Second, we test whether the wave of central bank reform that swept the region has had any effect on the existence or strength of the electoral cycle in exchange rates. Third, we test an additional hypothesis, namely, that financial liberalization may also be an important variable explaining changes in electoral effects on the real exchange rate. In a panel of 9 Latin American countries with available macroeconomic data and a history of exogenous election dates, we confirm the previous findings that real depreciation intensifies after elections even when modeling the significant conditional heteroskedasticity in these data. We also show, for the first time in the literature, that post-election exchange rates are significantly less predictable. We go on to test whether central bank reform has influenced the way in which elections affect the RER in Latin America. If reform has been effective at reducing political manipulation of the exchange rate, then any relationship we see between elections and the RER before central bank reform should be mitigated in the post-reform era. We find that the relationship disappears after reform and that post-reform real exchange rates are also significantly less volatile. Finally, we show that financial liberalization seems to have a stronger effect on the conditional variance of the RER than does central bank reform, but reform has a stronger impact on the conditional mean.     

Relative productivity increases and the appreciation of the Turkish lira

This paper studies the Balassa–Samuelson hypothesis between Turkey and 27 members of the European Union. More specifically, using recently developed cointegration techniques with multiple breaks, we test the relationship between the real effective exchange rate and inter-country differences in the relative productivity of the tradable and non-tradable sectors over the period 1990:Q1–2011:Q2. In recent years, the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey (CBRT) has emphasized the importance of the B–S hypothesis for Turkey. Our findings, however, suggest that changes in relative productivity have played a limited role in explaining the real effective exchange rate appreciation. In particular, the relationship between the real effective exchange rate and productivity indicated by the Balassa–Samuelson hypothesis is not supported for the post 2001 era in Turkey.