Ethnicity,Acculturation, Self-Construal,and Motivations for Outdoor Recreation

Research on the leisure of racial and ethnic groups has recently been criticized for a variety of different reasons. In response to some of these concerns, this article examines the motivations of outdoor recreationists who identify themselves as being Chinese ( n = 53); it compares their motivations with those of Euro-North Americans ( n = 180) at the same outdoor setting; and it does so using the construct of self-construal as an intervening variable between ethnicity, acculturation, and motivations for outdoor recreation. According to Markus and Kitayama (1991), individuals with independent self-construals value being unique, expressing themselves, and promoting their own goals, whereas individuals with interdependent self-construals value belonging, fitting in, and promoting others' goals. Furthermore, although people in or from Western Europe and North America are more likely to have independent self-construals, people in or from Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Southern Europe are more likely to hold interdependent self-construals. On the basis of the above, a series of regressions were conducted. Results suggest that (a) ethnicity does affect both types of self-construal; (b) ethnicity does affect four outdoor recreation motivations directly, although this relationship is usually, but not always, mediated by self-construal; (c) ethnicity does affect four other recreation motivations indirectly, either through the interdependent self-construal or through both types of self-construal; and (d) with Chinese respondents, acculturation did affect one recreation motivation directly and, through the independent self-construal, two other motivations indirectly.     

The impact of cultural orientation on perceived fairness over demand-based pricing

Revenue management practices are now being implemented by hotel firms on a global scale. This requires a finer understanding of how different cultures will relate to perceived unfairness that stems from the inequities inherent in demand-based pricing. In this context, individualism and collectivism as cultural constructs have been used extensively in cross-cultural research. These constructs are manifested with vertical and horizontal orientations that distinguish social patterns based on the acceptance of a hierarchy or conversely the preference over equality. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between vertical and horizontal orientations of individualism and collectivism with perceived price fairness over demand-based pricing. Findings indicate that vertical individualism has a significantly positive relationship with perceived price fairness. This can be attributed to the inherent acceptance of inequality in this cultural dimension combined with the emphasis of the individual over the collective unit. Marketing implications for lodging managers are discussed.     

Regionalism in Tourism-The Case for Kenya and Ethiopia

Abstract

To understand the behavior of tourists from different cultures, a cross-cultural study was conducted to examine Japanese and American college students' travel preferences. A psychographic approach based on value orientations was used to understand the relationship between travel preferences and students' cultural tendencies of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. The study confirmed previous findings that Japanese and American college students have different cultural tendencies and travel preferences. In addition, horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism significantly correlated with several travel preferences among Japanese and American college students.     

Tourist Motivation with Sun and Sand Destinations: Satisfaction and the Wom-Effect

To study the tourist consumption process, the present work suggests a new conceptual framework of tourist motivation. This framework for tourist motivation proposes causal relationships for important constructs in the consumption process: between motivations to travel, tourists' satisfaction, and intentions to communicate with others by word-of-mouth (WOM). A review of current tourism and marketing literature suggests two body-related dimensions (i.e., sun and warmth, fitness and health) and two mind-related dimensions (i.e., culture and nature, escapism). The study tests an instrument to measure the dimensions of tourist motivation. A research model investigates the relevant relationships among the constructs and uses a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. Analysis of 1,222 outbound charter tourists from Norway tests the model. The results confirm that body and mind are useful as a framework to assess tourist motivations. People have many motives for visiting sun and sand destinations. Satisfaction was, as expected, found to impact WOM. However, only mind-related motives affect satisfaction with the destination, and tourists prefer to talk about culture and nature motivations, in particular, to others. These findings are of great importance due to the great influence of WOM in tourism marketing. The findings point to the importance of recognizing the differences in tourist motivation for traveling and what tourists are inclined to tell others when arriving back home.     

Sexual Minority Adults at a Seasonal Home Campground: An Examination of Common,Unique, and Diverse Leisure Motivations

We examined the motivations of sexual minority adults to vacation at a sexual minority-focused campground and how sexual orientation identity management was associated with leisure motivations. Twenty-nine men and 12 women who owned seasonal homes participated. In responses to open-ended questions, participants expressed many of the motivations typically associated with seasonal home leisure (e.g., socializing, escape, relax). The most frequently mentioned motivation was the sexual minority focus of the campground. The more participants were “out” in everyday life, the less likely they were to mention the sexual minority focus of the campground as a motivation for being there.     

Determinants of Innovative Behaviour in the Hotel Industry: A cross-Cultural Study

The present study develops a conceptual framework that sheds light on whether institutional pressures (i.e., normative, mimetic, and coercive) and corporate support can improve innovative behavior across different societies and the moderating role of national cultural dimensions on this link. Our study validated these arguments empirically using data from the 2018 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). Data were collected and analyzed from 2,618 respondents. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey of full-time non-managerial employees selected, from different departments of various four- and five-star hotels across five economically and culturally different societies (UK, UAE, Germany, China, USA). Our results indicated that both institutional pressures and corporate support have positive influence on employees’ innovative behaviour. Furthermore, Hotels in cultures with high levels of individualism and low levels of uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and masculinity will indicate higher levels of innovative behaviour in response to corporate support programs. While, hotels in nations with high levels of power distance, collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity will indicate higher levels of innovative behaviour in response to normative, mimetic, and coercive pressure. These findings provide important implications for innovative behaviour by developing and validating a multilevel model empirically in the hospitality context.     

The Influence of Ethnicity and Self-Construal on Leisure Constraints

This study examines the effects of ethnicity, participation, and self-construal on constraints to the popular leisure activity of downhill skiing, an activity that is struggling to attract ethnic minority group members in North America. A new leisure constraints model guided our study, a framework that recognizes the importance of macro- (i.e., ethnicity) and micro-level (i.e., participation, self-construal) variables on the traditional concepts of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints. After sampling both Chinese- and Anglo-Canadian skiers and nonskiers, results indicate that ethnicity does influence leisure constraints, both alone and in interaction with self-construal.     

遗产旅游动机的核心-边缘结构研究--以丽江为例

遗产旅游动机存在着一个核心-边缘结构，核心动机源自遗产属性，而边缘动机与遗产属性关系不大。既有研究虽已认识到这个结构，但对于动机如何从属性而来的过程却关注不多。文章采用方法-目的链研究方法，以丽江为案例地，对该结构进行探讨。方法-目的链主张从属性到结果再到价值这样的层级性建构，可还原游客动机的产生过程。研究发现，游客动机来自丽江多个方面的属性：遗产属性、遗产相关属性和遗产无关属性。这些属性往往被综合起来提到，游客同时被这些属性吸引而不是单单被遗产属性所吸引。逃离和归属感这两个在理论上看应该是核心动机价值，但追溯其属性却发现产生这些价值的也包括非遗产属性。而寻求艳遇、成就感和寻找自我这些在理论上看似与核心动机无关的价值，却与遗产属性和遗产相关属性关系密切。这说明游客对遗产进行了遗产客观价值以外的建构。     

A new dualistic approach to brand attitude: The role of passion among integrated resort customers

Integrated resorts have recently become a very popular destination for tourists. However, there is a lack of knowledge about general customers’ behavior in the integrated resort setting. Thus, this study focused on the perceptions, emotions, and behavioral intentions of recreational customers who had previously visited an integrated resort. The authors examine the structural relationship among the cognitive (i.e., passion and motivation), affective (i.e., affective attitude), and conative intention outcome of general integrated resort customers. Structural equation modeling analysis of 401 survey participants showed that the link between extrinsic motivation and obsessive passion reduced affective attitude. By contrast, the association of intrinsic motivation and harmonious passion promoted affective attitude. The conative intention outcome of customers is directly influenced by intrinsic motivation and affective attitude. This study contributes to academic and practical implications in the integrated resort brand marketing by focusing on recreational customers’ behavior.     

Influence of culture on purchase decision: Integrative models development of amusement park customers

The current study developed and examined integrative models to analyze the influence of national culture on purchase decision attributes (PDAs) between American and Chinese amusement park customers using the consumer style inventory (CSI), attributes of purchase decisions, and cultural dimensions. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the dimensions (i.e., cultural dimensions and PDAs); the prevalent estimate of error covariance; the validity of the integrative models and the group invariance; and the effects among the latent variables. Structural equation modeling suggested significant impacts of power distance (PD), uncertainty avoidance (UA) and long-term orientation (ORI) on PDAs. The group invariance model analysis showed significantly more positive impacts of PD and ORI on PDAs among Chinese amusement park customers. Theoretical and managerial implications such as insignificance of individualism/ collectivism, perception of price appropriateness, niche markets development for American customers, and more diverse products and service packages for Chinese customers, are discussed.     

Natural Resource Agencies and Their Motivations to Partner: The Public Lands Partnership Model

Public land management agencies, such as the USDA Forest Service (USFS), utilize partnerships to accomplish a variety of tasks and meet specific targets. However, public agency personnel invest considerable time and energy to develop and maintain partnerships. Research on partnering motivations typically focuses on volunteers, nonprofit organizations and corporations, leaving the motivations of public agency personnel relatively unknown. This paper presents findings from a multiple partnership case study design on six national forests. The Public Lands Partnership Model (PLPM) is presented as a conceptualization of 13 motivations, classified into 3 distinct motivation types (i.e., interpersonal, intrapersonal, and institutional), that influence the propensity of agency personnel to partner. Additional influences, such as national forests’ external environment and internal commitment, need further exploration to confirm the PLPM and generalize results to the USFS and other agencies engaged in public land management partnerships.     

Motivation and Acceptability Norms of Human-Caused Sound in Muir Woods National Monument

Acceptability of sound, natural or human-caused, was predicted to vary by an individual's motivation for quiet at Muir Woods National Monument. This study used a dose-response methodology where visitors (n = 157; response rate = 54%) listened to five audio recordings varying in the percentage of time that human-caused sound was louder than natural sound (percent time above). Visitors then rated the acceptability (pleasing to annoying) of each recording. Cluster analysis was used to segment individuals into three homogenous groups based on their motivations (i.e., low, moderate, and high motivation for quiet) for visiting the park. Results indicated that as percent time above natural sound increased, visitor ratings of human-caused sound decreased. Reactions to human-caused sound also decreased as motivation for quiet increased. Consensus regarding the acceptability of sound was greatest when the percent time above natural sound was lowest (i.e., quietest sounds). Recommendations are offered for setting standards to meet soundscape objectives.     

The determinants of hospitality employees’ pro-environmental behaviors: The moderating role of generational differences

Seeking to build a deeper understanding of the determinants of hospitality employees’ pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs), this study explored linkages between employees’ autonomous and external motivations to perform PEBs, environmental concerns, self-efficacy, and employees’ reported PEBs. Hospitality employees (n = 432) indicated that autonomous motivation was associated with increases in employees’ environmental concern, self-efficacy, and PEBs. External motivation was significantly related to employees’ levels of environmental concern and PEBs. Employees’ environmental concern levels had positive effects on self-efficacy and PEBs. Self-efficacy was, in turn, positively associated with PEBs. The relationships between these variables were moderated by generational differences (e.g., Gen X and Gen Y) because generational characteristics might lead to formulating distinct generational perceptions in an organizational context. There were significant differences in the effects of autonomous motivation on environmental concern levels and PEBs between Gen X and Gen Y. In addition, the differences in effects of external motivation on environmental concern and PEBs were statistically significant between the two generations. Lastly, the impacts of environmental concern and self-efficacy on PEBs were significantly different between the two generations as well. Overall, our results suggest that the interplay of autonomous motivation, external motivation, environmental concern, and self-efficacy is important to the process of influencing hospitality employees’ PEBs.     

Culture As A Moderator Of The Relationship Between Service Quality And The Tourist'S Satisfaction With Different Distribution Channels

The present research analyzes the influence of culture on the relationship between each of the dimensions of service quality and tourists' satisfaction with the distribution channel, differentiating between travel agencies and the Internet. More specifically, the research seeks to understand the influence of the cultural dimensions of uncertainty avoidance and individualism/collectivism on the relationship between each of the dimensions of service quality and satisfaction, depending on the medium through which the service is purchased. The sample was made up of 600 tourists. Of these, 300 tourists (150 Spanish and 150 English) had purchased hotel accommodation for their last holiday via a travel agency, and the other 300 (150 Spanish and 150 English) had purchased hotel accommodation for their last holiday via the Internet. The findings indicate that there are variations in the relationships between each of the dimensions of service quality and satisfaction, and that these variations are shaped by the cultural dimensions of uncertainty avoidance and individualism/collectivism.     

Investigating customer loyalty formation for wellness spa: Individualism vs. collectivism

Visitor retention is undeniably a major issue for every destination marketer. This study was an attempt to develop an international tourists’ loyalty framework for wellness spa tourism destination by considering quality and value of spa tourism in Thailand, affect, satisfaction, desire, and culture. Our proposed framework and hypothesized relationships were evaluated by using a structural analysis. A field survey was used. Results indicated that our conceptual model included a satisfactory fit to the data. Quality and value were found to have a critical role, and other study constructs were identified to act as direct/indirect driving forces of loyalty intentions. In addition, mediating role of affect, satisfaction, and desire was found. Moreover, moderating impact of culture (individualism vs. collectivism) on the loyalty formation was identified. Overall, our theoretical framework was demonstrated to be capable of explicating wellness spa tourists’ destination loyalty formation. Implications for destination marketers in Thailand are discussed.     

What recovery options to offer for loyalty reward program members: Dollars vs. Miles?

Research shows that offering monetary compensation is effective in restoring customers’ equity perceptions following a service failure. However, little is known about loyalty reward program members’ responses to various types of recovery options. This study fills this important void by investigating two types of compensation: a discount coupon (in dollars) and bonus reward points (in miles) in the airline context. This study further investigates the boundary effect of controllability of a service failure. Our findings show that, when the flight delay is perceived as highly controllable by the airline company (i.e., scheduling error by flight crews, repatronage intention was higher in the 50-dollar discount vs. 2500 bonus miles condition. Conversely, repatronage intention did not differ between the two compensation options when the flight delay was perceived as uncontrollable i.e., inclement weather. Our findings help hospitality and tourism firms leverage service recovery initiatives for loyalty reward program members.     

Empirical verification of a conceptual model of local food consumption at a tourist destination

This study empirically tests a conceptual model of local food consumption proposed by Kim et al. (2009) and examines relationships among the key factors found in the model. This study quantitatively identified factors affecting local food consumption: five motivations (cultural experience, interpersonal relationship, excitement, health concern, and sensory appeal); food-related personality traits (food neophobia and food involvement); and ‘demographic factors’ (i.e., gender, age, and annual income) and their relationships. This study showed that demographic variables (gender and age) were related to some motivational factors and significant differences in the FNG associated with gender, age and income.     

Understanding the Cultural Differences in Tourist Motivation Between Anglo-American and Japanese Tourists

Summary

There is considerable evidence to suggest that differences in cultural characteristics exist across the world. Among them, individualistic societies emphasize “I” consciousness, autonomy, emotional independence, pleasure seeking and universalism. On the other hand, col-lectivistic societies stress “we” consciousness, collective identity, group solidarity, sharing, and particularism. A comparative research on the motivation of tourists from different cultures may challenge current tourism research, which mainly focuses on individualism and rationalism. These values of individualism and rationalism result in underestimation of the influence of groups, norms, culture, and emotion or impulse on tourist behavior. There have been few studies which attempt to directly measure cultural characteristics and identity across culture, and to explain how these cultural characteristics play a role in creating distinctive differences in tourist motivation. Thus, this study explores (1) cultural differences underlying individualism-collectivism between Anglo-American and Japanese tourists; (2) examines the relationship of two cultural dimensions to tourist motivation, and (3) suggests management implications facing tourism industry.     

Push or pull? Identifying rock climbing tourists' motivations

The aims of this research are to clarify the motivations of rock climbing tourists by using a push and pull framework and to investigate the relationship between tourist motivation and overall satisfaction. In a survey of 473 rock climbing tourists in the Geyikbayırı region in Antalya, Turkey, the most important push motivations were identified as ‘physical setting’ and ‘challenge’, while ‘climbing novelty seeking’ and ‘climbing tourism infrastructure’ were the most important pull motivations. Furthermore, the findings of this study indicated that overall satisfaction of rock climbers can be determined by their push and pull motivations. The results also showed that motivations of rock climbers differ according to their experience levels. The paper ends with theoretical contributions of the study and its managerial implications.     

When does an employee not help coworkers? The effect of leader–member exchange on employee envy and organizational citizenship behavior

Using a sample of 233 front-line hotel employees, we examined leader–member exchange (LMX), envy, and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The results from path analysis support the research model that employees who have a relatively poor working relationship with their supervisor (i.e., low-quality LMX relationship) were more likely to show higher levels of envy than employees who have relatively closer working relationships with the same supervisor (i.e., high-quality LMX relationship). Ultimately, higher levels of envy decreased employee voluntary helping behavior (i.e., organizational citizenship behavior, OCB) toward coworkers. This finding suggests that employees perceiving a poor working relationship with their supervisor committed less voluntary helping behavior toward coworkers than their counterparts. Implications for managers and suggestions for future research are discussed.