Instant‐count sampling: A technique for estimating recreation use in municipal settings

Instant‐count sampling was tested on four municipal recreation areas in Athens, Georgia. Users were counted instantaneously on the areas at randomly selected times. From these counts, estimates of use and standard errors were achieved with a minimum of sampling time required. Errors ranged from 10.2 to 37.8 percent of estimated use and did not exceed 23.6 percent for total use.     

Urban recreation research: An overview

Despite the fact that the population of the United States ha shifted from largely rural to largely urban in this century, the commitment to research in recreation, inadequate as it is, has remained in the hinterlands. There is no critical mass of recreation researchers focusing on urban recreation as there now is focused on outdoor recreation. Urban recreation studies have been noncumulative in nature due to the wide range their sponsors, staff, substantive topics, lack of generalizability, and inevitable tensions between practitioners and researchers. Ironically, urban recreational research, and support of it, has diminished in this country at the same time that there has been an increasing concern for such information and knowledge. The future looks bleak insofar as the development of a strong, major, national urban recreation research program is concerned.     

Recreation and the Environment as Cultural Dimensions in Contemporary American Society

This paper broadly explores changing outdoor recreation demands, environmental opinions and demographics in the United States. With this country's population predicted to more than double by the end of this century, it is imperative that we understand these trends and their implications for better managing our natural environment and providing opportunities for outdoor recreation in that environment. Using national survey data, we have described differences in recreation behavior (participation) and environmental attitudes nationwide across six socio-demographic factors-race, country of birth, rural-urban residence, region of the country, age and income. Results indicate that demographic differences, recreation activity choices and people's environmental positions are linked.     

Destination diversification as an indicator of activity compatibility: An exploratory analysis

Abstract

The concept of activity packages has long been recognized as an important basis for planning outdoor recreation activities. Recent studies suggest, however, that because of definitional and methodological problems, little has been accomplished in helping park planners assess the degree to which activities can be planned together. In this study, we explore the relationship between participation in recreation activities and the number of facilities at which activity takes place. The results suggest that this relationship can be used as a reliable indicator of the degree to which recreation activities are perceived to be compatible. The analyses also suggest that households generally tend to perceive compatibility among recreation activities in the same way regardless of their socioeconomic status. The implications of these findings are considered and shown to be important within the context of park planning.     

Playing While Black

Abstract

In the United States, black youth face unique challenges that shape “where” they recreate, “who” they participate with, and “how” they engage in recreation. Recent events around the country have highlighted the potential of racial profiling in leisure settings. As a result, black youth and parents remain aware of the potential dangers of participating in recreation activities in public spaces. As black youth and their families are forced to navigate these realities, our field is presented with opportunities to explore unanswered questions about the relationship between Race and leisure, especially in the area of youth development. Using multiple contemporary examples to demonstrate the impact of Race on the recreation of black youth, three theoretical frameworks are presented that may help advance the discussion on race, recreation, and youth development. Warning: This article includes videos that contain graphic content and may be upsetting to some.     

Crisis Management and Its Impact on Destination Marketing

Abstract

This paper analyzes the crisis management procedures utilized by four specific Convention and Visitors Bureaus in a variety of disaster situations and locations across the United States. The crises studied are representative of both man-made and natural disasters, and occurred in destinations in which tourism plays a significant role. From these case studies, a comprehensive set of crisis management procedures was compiled for the benefit of Convention and Visitors Bureaus nationwide. Such standardized crisis management procedures will presumably contribute to a faster and more efficient recovery for any destination after a crisis, as these procedures have been used in actual crisis situations.     

The importance of urban milieu in predicting recreation participation: The case of day hiking

Abstract

Numerous outdoor recreation forecasting studies have included household characteristics as well as aspects of the recreation facilities and accessibility. Only a few studies, however, have included in the prediction equation any measure of the effects of urban milieu on behavior. Four commonly cited surrogates of urban milieu are used to cluster the cities of Illinois into three relatively homogeneous groups of environments. Regression analyses are then undertaken using individual household data, aspects of the recreation facilities patronized by the households, participation, and distance and travel time estimates. Comparisons of the regression analyses indicate that, as a concept, milieu is an important predictor of both the volume of recreation participation and salient features of recreation facilities.     

Why public–private cooperation is not prevalent in national parks within centralised countries

ABSTRACT

Shared governance between the public and private sectors can contribute to the efficiency and effectiveness of park management and to the fulfilment of its triple mandate of recreation, conservation, and economic pursuits. Nevertheless, park authorities in centralised countries are reluctant to introduce public–private partnerships on a wide scale. This qualitative study is to explore the reasons why public–private cooperation is not widespread within national parks in Vietnam and China. The findings show that both countries have made some sophisticated management choices in relation to public–private cooperation. The adaptive implications are discussed at the end of the paper.     

Perceived crowding in recreation settings: An urban case study

Abstract

Research on crowding in recreation areas has focused primarily on back‐country settings. This study tests some of the axioms developed from this research and from studies conducted in non‐recreation settings using data from a case study in an urban park. The actual number of visitors present was found to be the most important individual predictor of perceived crowding in this setting. Results suggest that more developed parks, in more urban contexts, may elicit different images and expectations about visitor density. The implications of these findings, as they relate both to studies of perceived crowding and the social definition of parks in general, are discussed.     

Mexican‐American/Anglo cultural differences as recreation style determinants

Abstract

The fastest growing minority group in the United States is Hispanic, with the majority of this group made up of Mexican‐Americans. Researchers question whether this group forms a distinct subculture in American society and if present recreation facility design provides opportunities for the reinforcement of cultural values.

Mexican‐American and Anglo campers using a minimally developed U.S. Forest Service managed campground in New Mexico were surveyed during the summer of 1985. Significant differences were noted between the groups. In particular, larger party sizes were noted for Mexican‐American campers than for the Anglo groups. Mexican Americans also indicated a preference for nearness to other campers, placed a higher priority on tangible campground design features, and intended to use more highly developed campgrounds and decrease use of dispersed or roadless area campgrounds in the future. Noted differences were believed related more to cultural identity than either socioeconomic or social class variances. There is some evidence to suggest that properly designed recreation facilities may provide the means to perpetuate important cultural traits for subcultural groups in American society.     

Immigrants' Adaptation and Interracial/Interethnic Interactions in Natural Environments

ABSTRACT

This study examined the role of leisure in natural environments in immigrants' adaptation, with a particular emphasis on facilitating interracial/interethnic interactions. Berry's adaptation framework was used as a theoretical framework. The project used in-depth individual interviews with 70 immigrants from China, Latin America, Morocco, Turkey, Ukraine, and Vietnam residing in the United States, the Netherlands, Germany, and Poland. The findings showed that recreation in natural environments promoted immigrants' psychological adaptation by helping to improve psychological and emotional well-being, develop feelings of attachment, strengthen social ties, and build memories and family traditions. The sociocultural adaptation was increased when immigrants learned about the culture of the host countries. The natural environments were not particularly conducive to establishing interactions with strangers but were convenient settings for interacting with families and members of the ethnic community.     

The Role of the Proximate Principle in the Emergence of Urban Parks in the United Kingdom and in the United States

Abstract

Residences located close to urban parks frequently sell at a premium. The increased home values represent a ‘capitalization’ of a park’s value to proximate homeowners and this phenomenon has been termed ‘the proximate principle’. The evolution of the principle from squares and gardens in small private estates to large park areas occurred with the development of Regent’s Park in London. The proximate principle’s dissemination into the new industrial cities of the UK first emerged at Prince’s Park in Liverpool, but it was still confined to private developments. Its transition into the public sector occurred with the development of Birkenhead Park. The data showing that Birkenhead Park was potentially a self‐financing venture funded by the enhanced value of proximate profits were widely disseminated and provided the financial rationale for many subsequent urban parks in other UK cities. This principle was absorbed by Frederick Law Olmsted on two early visits to Birkenhead Park and incorporated into the design of Central Park in New York City, the first large urban park in the US. Olmsted meticulously documented the impact of Central Park on adjacent property values and demonstrated that the park made a ‘profit’. These data were crucial in verifying the legitimacy of the proximate principle and in providing the justification for large urban parks in a host of other US cities. Although these data are naïve when viewed through the lens of modern social science, recent studies using sophisticated techniques have confirmed the fundamental legitimacy of the proximate principle.     

The Impacts of Terrorism

Abstract

After the downturn spiral in travel resulting from the Gulf War, marketing professionals had to become extremely creative in trying to attract travelers back to the recreation and tourism markets of the world. However, the events of September 11 inflicted far greater damage to the domestic travel market in the United States than did the Gulf War. The purposes of the study were to examine the perceptions and attitudes of people toward (1) the awareness and acceptance of security measures in travel and tourism, (2) the effects of the September 11 attacks on the tourism industry and industry responses, and (3) the changes of people's travel and recreation behaviors such as destination and activity choices. The individuals surveyed were asked questions concerning their perceptions regarding the effects of the September 11 attacks on the tourism industry and government/business responses, the relative importance of safety in destination/activity choice, security measures at airports, and the changes of their spending patterns, travel decisions, and leisure pursuits. The results of the study indicated that faculty members were more likely to experience the changes of their life, travel decision, and activity choices than students.     

Measuring the discriminatory impact associated with higher recreational fees

Abstract

Higher fees for publicly provided outdoor recreation facilities have the potential of forcing low‐income users to reduce their use of the facilities more than for higher income users. Some low‐income users may be forced to stop using the facilities altogether. However, to our knowledge, no studies have been designed specifically to test for the presence of this type of discriminatory impact among current users. In this article we present an approach for determining whether higher fees create a discriminatory impact on low‐income users. An empirical application of the approach suggests that a discriminatory impact does exist among the users of Maine state park campgrounds.     

Assessing the effect of coastal park's attributes on its entrance fee charges: a hedonic approach

In this paper, we investigate the effect of the recognized nature-and-activity-based attributes on the level of park's admission fee charges using a panel data of 29 coastal recreation parks in Dalian city of China. A total of seven different Hedonic pricing model specifications are used in the estimating process. The results indicate that a numerous attributes have statistically significant effects (α?≤?0.10) on the level of park admission fee charges. In terms of the economic valuation, marine sightseeing results in the highest value of marginal willingness to pay (MWTP) of $6.4 as its quality rank improves to a designated higher level. As expected that the park congestion has a negative effect on the MWTP (?In this paper, we investigate the effect of the recognized nature-and-activity-based attributes on the level of park's admission fee charges using a panel data of 29 coastal recreation parks in Dalian city of China. A total of seven different Hedonic pricing model specifications are used in the estimating process. The results indicate that a numerous attributes have statistically significant effects (α?≤?0.10) on the level of park admission fee charges. In terms of the economic valuation, marine sightseeing results in the highest value of marginal willingness to pay (MWTP) of $6.4 as its quality rank improves to a designated higher level. As expected that the park congestion has a negative effect on the MWTP (?$0.47) and overall park's rankings have a positive effect ($0.05) on park's MWTP. However, many recreation activities accommodated by the park sites exhibit a relatively weak effect on the park entrance fee charges. One possible reason is perhaps owing to the single admission package fee policy adopted by the park management.     

The Relationship Between Visitor-Based Standards of Quality and Existing Conditions in Parks and Outdoor Recreation

Abstract

Parks and related areas are increasingly adopting management-by-objectives/indicator-based frameworks to protect resources and the quality of visitor experiences. Indicator-based frameworks rely on development of indicators and standards of quality, and research has been developed to measure visitor-based standards of quality. In this research approach, visitors to parks and related areas judge the acceptability of a range of recreation-related impacts to natural/cultural resources and the quality of the visitor experience. The purpose of this paper is to explore the strength and variability of the relationship between visitor-based standards of quality and existing conditions in parks and related areas. Data were derived from studies conducted in 11 U.S. national park system units between 1995 and 2002. Results indicated that visitor-based standards of quality are generally unrelated to existing conditions. Implications of these findings are explored for research on visitor-based standards of quality and related issues, and for the management of parks and outdoor recreation.     

Using Visitors' Motivations to Provide Learning Opportunities at Water-based Recreation Areas

With the increase of nature-based tourism and recreation on public lands in the United States, recreation and tourism planners have an opportunity to provide environmental education to a wide diversity of people. However, recreationists visit natural areas to attain a variety of experiences and benefits, which might or might not include learning. Through an examination of visitors to fresh-water springs in north central Florida, this study identified (1) the recreation benefits visitors to fresh-water springs most desire, (2) the role learning plays in recreationists' motivations to visit water-based recreation areas, and (3) the recreation opportunities (i.e. facilities and services) that will best provide learning opportunities for all visitors. Respondents were divided into four groups according to where they were surveyed and whether or not they had a strong interest in learning. Three of the four groups indicated an interest in developed services and facilities (e.g. visitor centres and museums) to provide for learning opportunities. Results also showed that some visitors' desires for learning benefits were not related to developed facilities and were more closely associated with passive recreation activities and settings. Specific planning implications for the four types of naturebased tourists are described.     

An Examination of Park Preferences and Behaviors Among Urban Residents: The Role of Residential Location,Race, and Age

We examined the relationship between age, race and residential location with respect to four issues salient to public park agencies, (a) citizens' perceived need for additional park land; (b) preferences for the desired function of that park land (e.g., conservation vs. recreation); (c) preferences for the style of recreation (e.g., developed vs. naturebased recreation); and, (d) level of existing visitation to local parks. Data for this study was drawn from a general population of urbanites residing within a seven-mile radius of Cleveland Metroparks' newly opened Ohio & Erie Canal Reservation. Computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) was used to collect data from respondents during an 8- to 10-minute interview. Eight hundred telephone interviews were completed in December, 2000, representing an overall response rate of 77% and an overall sampling error of - 3.5 %. Four logistic regression models were generated to test the relationships of interest. Results of the study suggested that while all three variables (race, age, and residential location) contributed significantly to the models, age was the strongest predictor of support/nonsupport for additional park land. Examination of park preferences revealed that older adults and Blacks were more likely to prefer recreation to conservation than younger adults and Whites. Race, however, was the strongest of these characteristics in terms of predictive power. Race had the strongest influence on the preference for type of recreation activity. When examining park visitation, older adults and Blacks were more likely to be nonvisitors.     

Applications of parks management information systems

The paper presents a conceptual model of an integrated management information system for municipal parks maintenance and operations. Research efforts in management information systems are presented in three categories: Business Research, Federally Sponsored Research, and Park and Recreation Systems Research. A case is made for further empirical research, the development of normative models, and evaluative criteria in an attempt to realize the full potential of electronic data processing in parks and recreation.     

Recreation research and planning in the federal republic of Germany: A commentary

Abstract

German recreation planning is strongly oriented toward the maintenance and provision of outdoor recreation areas. The rapidly growing consumption of outdoor recreation activities within a densely populated area has led to refined procedures of evaluating landuse potential and distributing outdoor facilities within environmental constraints. One such procedure is the use of attractivity models. Such models utilize a matrix of social, aesthetic, physical, and infrastructure attributes to arrive at a ranking of attractivity for given landscapes. The rankings are the basis of general landuse decisions and outdoor recreation investment procedures.