Entrepreneurship ecosystems and women entrepreneurs: a social capital and network approach

This study investigates the effects of venture typology, race, ethnicity, and past venture experience on the social capital distribution of women entrepreneurs in entrepreneurial ecosystems. Social network data from two municipal ecosystems in Florida, USA (Gainesville and Jacksonville), suggest that network connectivity and the distribution of social capital are significantly different for men and women entrepreneurs. This difference is contingent on the venture type. Male entrepreneurs show higher comparative scores of bridging social capital in aggressive- and managed-growth venture networks, while women entrepreneurs surpass their male counterparts’ bridging capital scores in lifestyle and survival venture networks. Lastly, experienced women entrepreneurs that self-identified as white showed a higher degree of network connectivity and bridging social capital in the entrepreneurial ecosystem than less experienced non-white female entrepreneurs. Implications for entrepreneurship practice and new research paths are discussed.

     

How social and human capital influence opportunity recognition and resource mobilization in India's handloom industry

Small-scale firms in rural areas play an extremely important role in the development of any country, and especially in developing countries. To understand entrepreneurs who operate in a low-technology industry, we rely on the network perspective on entrepreneurship. In this paper, we investigate how the social and human capital of entrepreneurs (in this case master weavers in the handloom industry) influence their ability to recognize opportunities and mobilize resources. In addition to examining the direct effects, we also explore the possibilities of social capital mediating between human capital, on the one hand, and opportunity recognition and resource mobilization on the other. This paper adds to existing literature in two ways: firstly, we expand the social capital paradigm by including different cultural settings and links to existing studies regarding small enterprises. Secondly, we provide additional evidence to the ongoing debate as to what constitutes a ‘good network’.     

The Contingent Value of Entrepreneurs’ Political Capital: Evidence from China

ABSTRACT

Who benefit from a transitioning economy, entrepreneurs who are politically connected or disconnected? Market transition theory and power conversion theory offer two divergent answers. Our study seeks to contribute to this debate by examining the contingent value of entrepreneurs’ political capital. We draw from social network theories and investigate whether and how entrepreneurs’ social networks influence the relationship between their political capital and social mobility. Using the data on Chinese entrepreneurs, we find that the impact of political capital on entrepreneurs’ social mobility is contingent on their network centrality. Practical implications and suggestions for future research are also discussed.     

基于社会资本的企业家群体研究

本文基于社会网络理论,通过研究温州和宁波两地企业家集群产生的过程,分析社会资本如何促进大规模的企业家集群产生。研究表明:企业家个人的社会资本在区域文化、共同价值观和群体信任的发酵下结成社会网络,并促使更多企业家产生且形成企业家集群;温州企业家社会网络具有强联系、同质性和自组织的特点,创业倾向集体行动,依赖本地资源,产业升级代际锁定;宁波企业家社会网络具有弱联系、异质性和他组织的特点,外部资源掌控力强,容易引发产业升级。     

Building international entrepreneurial virtual networks in cyberspace

We examine how software international entrepreneurs in Iceland use online social network sites to develop and harness their network relationships. To study these relationships, we use a combination of participant observation on LinkedIn and open ended face-to-face interviews. The framework for this study is based on resource-based view, networks and international entrepreneurship theories. We found that entrepreneurs with the largest networks use the online social network to demonstrate their network strength and to identify opportunities to bridge relationships. Our contribution illustrates how entrepreneurs acquire resources to internationalize through online social capital formation.     

企业家行为与企业社会资本

本文基于对海尔、宝洁(中国)、新希望三家企业网站的内容的分析,研究了企业家行为在企业社会资本积累过程中扮演的角色。研究结果表明,企业家频繁参与非市场活动是企业积累社会资本的普遍做法。特别地,在企业积累社会资本的过程中,民营企业对企业家个人的依赖程度最大,而外资企业依赖的是包含企业家个人、职能部门、员工在内的企业平台,国有企业则介于两者之间。     

Measuring Ethnic Community Involvement: Development and Initial Testing of an Index*

This paper builds on the work of Chaganti and Greene, who distinguish between ethnic minority entrepreneurs/small business owners who are very involved with their ethnic community and those who are not. We extend their work by developing an Index of Ethnic Community Involvement based not only on personal but also business characteristics. We utilize a large sample size (698 interviews with entrepreneurs), drawn from five ethnic groups, and develop a valid and reliable (0.69) Index of Ethnic Involvement (IEI) with a strong emphasis on social capital theory. Our initial analysis shows the IEI predicts some personal and business characteristics. Future development will include building regression models to predict business outcomes. The IEI, when fully developed, promises to be useful for targeting assistance, education and training programs, and policy initiatives for entrepreneurs and small business owners according to the level of ethnic community involvement.     

社会资本、社会网络与企业家集群——基于宁波和温州的比较研究

基于社会网络理论,文章通过研究温州和宁波两地企业家集群产生的过程,分析社会资本如何促进大规模的企业家集群产生。研究表明,企业家个人的社会资本在区域文化、共同价值观和群体信任的发酵下结成社会网络,社会网络促使更多企业家产生从而形成企业家集群。研究显示,温州企业家社会网络具有强联系、同质性和自组织的特点,创业倾向集体行动,依赖本地资源,产业升级代际锁定;宁波企业家社会网络具有弱联系、异质性和他组织的特点,外部资源掌控力强,容易引发产业升级。     

Social Ties,Social Capital,and Recruiting Managers in Transnational Ventures

Social capital provides access to resources; however, how migrant entrepreneurs use social capital in the recruitment of managers for their transnational ventures is less understood. The authors conducted eight in-depth interviews with transnational entrepreneurs of Indian origin in the United Kingdom and nine confirmatory interviews with managers of their transnational ventures. Findings show that transnational entrepreneurs substitute or complement international and local social capital in the recruitment of managers contingent on whether they (a) live in the United Kingdom or India and (b) use social ties in the United Kingdom or India to recruit managers. Implications for research, policy and management are discussed.     

Roles of Social Capital in Venture Creation: Key Dimensions and Research Implications*

This study was built upon Nahapiet and Ghoshal's three dimensions of social capital—structural, relational, and cognitive. It addresses three research questions: (1) Are there significant differences in social capital between nascent entrepreneurs and the general public (control group)? (2) Are there significant differences in social capital between technology and nontechnology nascent entrepreneurs? (3) How do the three dimensions of social capital interact among themselves across different sample groups? These questions were examined by using the Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics data set. Results suggest that there are no significant differences in various dimensions of social capital between nascent entrepreneurs and the general public. What differentiates the two groups is not the amount of social capital but the patterns of association among its different dimensions. Additionally, the authors found that technology‐based nascent entrepreneurs tend to have a higher degree of relational capital than their nontechnology counterparts. Implications and future research directions are discussed.     

Network Support and the Success of Newly Founded Business

The "network approach to entrepreneurship" is a prominent theoretical perspective within the literature on entrepreneurship. This literature assumes that network resources, networking activities and network support are heavily used to establish new firms (network founding hypothesis). Further, those entrepreneurs, who can refer to a broad and diverse social network and who receive much support from their network are more successful (network success hypothesis). Based on a study of 1,700 new business ventures in Upper Bavaria (Germany), the article gives an empirical test of the network success hypothesis. It is argued that one reason, why previous studies did not consistently find positive network effects, may be that social capital (network support) is used to compensate shortfalls of other types of capital (human capital and financial capital). This compensation hypothesis, however, does not find empirical confirmation. On the other hand, however, the network success hypothesis proves to be valid in our analyses, i.e. network support increases the probability of survival and growth of newly founded businesses.     

Immigrant Entrepreneurship in an Emerging Economy: The Case of Turkey

This paper examines motivations for, and paths to, entrepreneurship among immigrants in Turkey based on interviews with 22 immigrant entrepreneurs in Istanbul. Findings suggest that immigrant entrepreneurs in a developing economy may be different from their counterparts in well‐established economies. First, immigrant entrepreneurs rely on their unique human and social capital in the process of starting businesses thanks to their ability to identify opportunities based on insider knowledge of the market in their home and host countries. Second, their ability to foster trusting relationships thanks to language, cultural, and religious knowledge permits immigrant entrepreneurs in an emerging economy to engage in less economically marginal activities.     

Beyond social capital: the role of entrepreneurs' social competence in their financial success

Two studies investigated the hypothesis that the higher entrepreneurs' social competence (their ability to interact effectively with others as based on discrete social skills), the greater their financial success. Entrepreneurs working in two different industries (cosmetics and high-tech) completed a questionnaire designed to measure several aspects of their social competence (e.g., accuracy in perceiving others, skill at impression management, persuasiveness). Results indicated that one aspect of social competence (e.g., accuracy in perceiving others) was positively related to financial success for both groups of entrepreneurs. In addition, social adaptability was related to financial success for entrepreneurs in the cosmetics industry, and expressiveness was related to such success for the entrepreneurs in the high-tech industry. The questionnaire employed to assess social competence was cross-validated with a third group of entrepreneurs who completed this measure themselves, and whose social competence was also rated by persons who knew them well. The two sets of ratings agreed closely, thus providing evidence for the validity of this measure. Overall, findings are consistent with the view that a high level of social capital (e.g., a favorable reputation, extensive social network, etc.) assists entrepreneurs in gaining access to persons important for their success. Once such access is attained, however, entrepreneurs' social competence influences the outcomes they experience.     

How does entrepreneurs' social capital hinder new business development? A relational embeddedness perspective

While most studies argue that, relational embeddedness, one facet of social capital, facilitates the obtaining process of scarce resources, our study cautions that it may exert negative impacts. This study examines the underlying process about how shared cognition influences new business development. Results from a survey on entrepreneur social network in China demonstrate that strong ties bring decision-making constraints for entrepreneurs to bear, while trust helps to lessen such restriction. Additionally, shared cognition should not become a preferred standard for entrepreneurs in choosing their network members, because simply relying on the intermediate role of tie strength engenders dark sides. Implications for research as well as for practice are discussed.     

The advantage of experienced start-up founders in venture capital acquisition: evidence from serial entrepreneurs

Entrepreneurs with prior firm-founding experience are expected to have more skills and social connections than novice entrepreneurs. Such skills and social connections could give experienced founders some advantage in the process of raising venture capital. This paper uses a large database of venture-backed companies and their founders to examine the advantage associated with prior founding experience. Compared with novice entrepreneurs, entrepreneurs with venture-backed founding experience tend to raise more venture capital at an early round of financing and tend to complete the early round much more quickly. In contrast, experienced founders whose earlier firms were not venture-backed do not show a similar advantage over novice entrepreneurs, suggesting the importance of connections with venture capitalists in the early stage of venture capital financing. However, when the analysis also takes into account later rounds of financing, all entrepreneurs with prior founding experience appear to raise more venture capital. This implies that skills acquired from any previous founding experience can make an entrepreneur perform better and in turn attract more venture capital.     

The potentials and perils of prosocial power: Transnational social entrepreneurship dynamics in vulnerable places

Social entrepreneurs can be powerful change agents for alleviating the suffering of the disadvantaged. However, their prosocial motivation and behavior frequently result in detrimental impacts on those they intend to support, especially when their operations span different socio-spatial contexts. We conducted a multiple comparative case study among 12 transnational social entrepreneurs of foreign, domestic non-indigenous, and local indigenous origin, who are seeking to improve the livelihoods of indigenous communities in rural Ecuador. We introduce the concept of prosocial power to social entrepreneurship research and demonstrate how it can work as a double-edged sword in the hands of transnationally embedded social entrepreneurs who operate in vulnerable places. Context-bound variations in social distance, bi-directional learning, reflexive impact measurement, and socio-spatial dominance were identified as being decisive for prosocial power to lead to positive or negative impacts on disadvantaged others.     

The Impact of Human and Social Capital on Entrepreneurs’ Knowledge of Finance Alternatives

Building upon prior research that demonstrates how the limited knowledge of finance alternatives of entrepreneurs may cause suboptimal finance decisions, this paper examines how entrepreneurs’ human and social capital influence their knowledge of finance alternatives. For this purpose, we use survey data from 103 Belgian start‐ups. Results demonstrate that entrepreneurs with a business education and entrepreneurs with experience in accountancy or finance have a broader knowledge of finance alternatives. Having a strong network in the financial community is further positively associated with the knowledge of finance alternatives. However, generic human capital, including higher education, industry experience, and management experience, is almost not related with the knowledge of finance alternatives.     

Why art matters: Artistic consumer‐entrepreneurship in subsistence marketplaces

This reflective essay explores the role art can play in subsistence marketplaces, focusing particularly on its role in consumer‐entrepreneurship. Using informal field engagement in Mexico, Tanzania, and Native American tribes, in dialogue with the literature, it poses three questions as the basis for a research agenda: How can consumer‐entrepreneurs preserve art and heritage to sustain socioeconomic value? What transformative role does art play in subsistence marketplaces for the consumers and entrepreneurs involved? How can indigenous consumers and entrepreneurs protect their cultural identity and sovereignty through art? Directions for future research include the need to better understand the role of assemblages and intermediaries for artisan consumer‐entrepreneurs, an issue with evident policy implications. As indigenous and near‐indigenous societies seek identity, meaning, and cohesion in a turbulent world, art can preserve, transform, and assert.     

默会知识视阈下家族企业代际传承管理与创新

代际传承不仅是家族企业物质资本所有权和管理控制权的传承,还包括人力资本、社会资本和文化资本的传承,特别是隐藏其中“只可意会不可言传”、具有技能性、诀窍性、实践性的默会知识传承。研究家族企业默会知识传承,通过共享和创新等途径,提升企业核心竞争力和企业家核心能力,探索家族企业长青之“道”、长盛之“魂”。     

民营企业家社会资本与企业成长研究

作为企业的重要资源,民营企业家的社会资本对企业的成长起着至关重要的作用。本文将企业家社会资本分为微观、中观和宏观三个层次:微观层次主要指企业家基于先赋性的私人关系指向所获得的关系网络资源,包括企业家的血缘、亲缘、学缘等,具有非常高的私人性;中观层次涉及企业家所在的行业或地区网络整体的结构性特征及网络间的互动;作为一种制度环境来考虑,宏观层次的社会资本主要指企业家所在的国家或地区的社会资本信任。实证研究发现民营企业家的社会资本,对企业成长产生显著的正向影响。