The influence of foreign direct investment on accommodation patterns in Vietnam as a result of the open-door policy

Before the ‘open-door’ policy doi moi, the Vietnamese government had monopolised all sectors of tourism in the country. In 1987, one year after the beginning of doi moi, the state issued the Law on Foreign Investment, which encouraged foreign direct investment (FDI) in Vietnam, especially in the tourism industry. This article examines the influence of the resulting influx of FDI on tourism accommodation patterns in Vietnam. A synopsis of policy and background of FDI in Vietnam accommodation is followed by an examination of developments, projects and experiences in this field since doi moi. The article then investigates the effects of FDI in Vietnam tourism accommodation on developments and practices in Vietnam's accommodation market, including the traditional state-owned accommodation sub-sector. The article integrates insights gained from interviews with operators of joint venture and state-owned hotels in Vietnam.     

Commodification of Volunteer Tourism: a Comparative Study of Volunteer Tourists in Vietnam and in Thailand

Volunteer tourism (VT) has often been depicted as a means of avoiding the commodification of tourism (and even ecotourism) by ensuring that local communities benefit from VT, both environmentally and economically, and that there is authentic engagement by the tourists with indigent people and their cultures. However, critics have questioned this claim, arguing that VT has become little different from tourism and ecotourism, entailing commodification by providing profit for VT organizations rather than for local communities and consuming rather than respecting local environments and cultures. This study tests these claims and counterclaims by a comparative analysis of two VT experiences, one in Vietnam and the other in Thailand. The findings of the study are that although each cohort of volunteer tourists (VTs) exhibited elements of both decommodification and commodification, on a continuum of decommodification and commodification, the Vietnam VTs were closer to the decommodification node, whereas the Thailand VTs were closer to the commodification node. In part, this was because the Vietnam VT project was pitched more towards conservation research, whereas the Thailand VT project was pitched more towards vacation conservation. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Post-Conflict tourism development in Sri Lanka: implications for building resilience

The 30?year war between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) had a considerable impact on the country's tourism industry. Yet, despite the war, the industry continued to exhibit a high level of resilience and since the end of the war international visitation has increased rapidly. This study, using a comprehensive review of literature and a series of interviews, examines the impact of the war on the industry as well as the government's post-conflict responses. Despite the rapid increase in international tourism numbers various concerns have been raised that government policies are likely to advantage large tourism operators and developers at the expense of small businesses in the informal sector. The development of the industry may also be at the expense of livelihoods of poorer members of society in other industries. A concentration on large-scale developments may reduce the resilience and therefore sustainability of the industry.     

Economic influences on air transport in Vietnam 2006–2019

Vietnam has emerged from a long and complex post-colonial experience as a fast-growing economy now embedded in the complex network of economic linkages in the Asia-Pacific region. Those linkages involve trade, foreign direct investment, and tourism. Their underlying geography is reflected in the geography of Vietnam's air transport linkages. An early set of air connections with ASEAN neighbours, especially Singapore and Malaysia, are still significant, though routes to South Korea and China are now more important. Within the country, the colonial structure of Hanoi as a political capital, and Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City) as a trading city, provided the framework for domestic air transport linkages. Here too the geography has shifted to include a set of smaller cities, especially those with tourism activities. The Hanoi-Ho Chi Minh City corridor is still dominant, and now ranks as one of the busiest domestic routes within the Asia-Pacific. These outcomes confirm the effect of economic development on air transport in Vietnam.     

What’s in the black box? Evaluating anti-poverty tourism interventions utilizing theory of change

Increasing interest in poverty alleviation at the beginning of twenty-first century has facilitated the rapid growth of various anti-poverty tourism interventions (ATIs) around the globe. The tourism–poverty alleviation link, however, is still not well established, partly due to a paucity of appropriate evaluation approaches that are capable of simultaneously providing researchers, practitioners and policy-makers with a deeper understanding of an ATI’s mechanisms, the complexity surrounding its operational processes and evidence of its impacts. Additionally, ATI stakeholders’ values and influences play a significant role in ATI evaluation yet their perspectives are often overlooked. Theory of Change (ToC) has the potential to generate a holistic picture of an ATI, as this innovative approach has been developed to connect stakeholders’ theories of context with the mechanisms and outcomes of an intervention. Utilizing a case study of microfinance tourism in Vietnam, this paper provides readers with insight into ToC and proposes a conceptual framework which guides the application of ToC to facilitate the effective evaluation of ATIs.     

Collaborative marketing for the sustainable development of community-based tourism enterprises: a reconciliation of diverse perspectives

ABSTRACT

Collaborative marketing for the sustainable development of community-based tourism enterprises (CBTEs) is subject to diverse stakeholder perspectives and a complex mix of factors determining collaboration success. This research investigates a framework supporting stakeholder collaborations in marketing CBTEs for sustainable development. The proposed framework is an outcome of the process of reconciling divergent perspectives in CBTE collaborative marketing using a knowledge co-production approach. Particularly, knowledge interactions between researchers and research participants to achieve a synthesis of perspectives in developing a collaborative marketing approach for the sustainable development of CBTEs in Vietnam were investigated. The knowledge interaction occurred in the form of a workshop that included 15 CBTE stakeholders and the first author and was undertaken in the village of Triem Tay (Vietnam). Through the workshop, a collaborative marketing framework for CBTE sustainability was identified. The framework stated the reasons for the divergence of perspectives on CBTE collaborative marketing for sustainable development: limited understanding of involved stakeholders; individuality in collective efforts; stakeholder self-righteousness; and contextual factors. Accordingly, the framework identified four attributes supporting stakeholders collaborations in marketing CBTEs for sustainable development: improved and right-directed perspectives of CBTE stakeholders; a set of rules governing stakeholder interventions; government involvement in CBTE collaborative marketing in the roles of an inspirer and an arbitrator; and the transformation from successful tour operators to social entrepreneurship to facilitate CBTE collaborative marketing. The contribution of this study lies in the potential of a knowledge co-production approach to be utilised in collaborative works involving multiple perspectives. Additionally, the study provides insights into the discussion of community-based tourism collaboration.     

Deterrents to tourism development in Iran

There are parts of the Middle East that can be regarded as being among the least preferred tourism destinations in the world. Research shows that travellers' perceptions of the region, as a whole, have been damaged and that, for some nations, the situation has gone from bad to worse. The combination of a hard‐line attitude towards religion, oil and water shortages have led to the onset of war and conflict, either among countries within the region, or have resulted in countries from within the region having conflicts with countries located outside of the region. This paper looks at the Middle East in general and Iran in particular in order to review its tourism potential and explains how the process of its development as a tourism destination has been hampered. This research also attempts to discover why, in spite of several attempts by the Iranian government, tourism has failed to develop to its true potential. The research is informed by a questionnaire survey of travellers together with a Mini‐Delphi Study of tourism academics. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Visual Representation of Border Tourism: Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) and Dokdo in South Korea

The demilitarized zone (DMZ) and Dokdo mark South Korea borders with North Korea and Japan respectively. Each borderland is a socially constructed symbolic cultural landscape shaped in part by tourism. In this study, a sample of 2202 online images was inspected using content‐semiotic analysis to understand how visual representation of border tourism works. It was found that visitors via social media and government censorship play major roles in constructing representations of (i) alienated borders with iconic war heritage attractions at the DMZ and (ii) an alienated and isolated Dokdo. Both borders highlight patriotic/nationalistic ‘flagging’ and the gaze across. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An evaluation of satisfaction levels among Chinese tourists in Vietnam

This paper examines the extent to which Vietnam satisfies the various destination attributes sought by Chinese tourists. The research investigates a number of variables, including socio‐demographics and travel characteristics, and compares the importance that travellers attach to various destination attributes with their associated satisfaction with Vietnam's various tourism products. By investigating the relationship between importance and satisfaction from the perspective of Chinese tourists, the paper makes a contribution to the literature. The findings should provide Vietnamese service providers with insights into the perceptions and satisfaction levels of Chinese tourists. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Basic Questions of 'Sustainable Tourism': Does Ecological and Socially Acceptable Tourism Have a Chance?

This paper examines the tourism market and its effects on the national economy. Ecological and socio-cultural problems cannot be denied. Due to an ever-increasing number of tourists, studies of tourism specific problems are necessary. To suggest and understand steps for the realisation of sustainable tourism, the author demands a glance at the whole tourism system, which he does by giving an overview of the tourism industry with obvious problems in that field. There is an analysis of the development of tourism demand, and the question whether there is something like 'sustainable mass tourism'. The increasing awareness of the environment plays an important role when it comes to tourism and selecting a tourism destination. The paper tries to find answers to promote a more sustainable tourism through tour operators and tourism companies, which can be a niche strategy for small or medium sized businesses. Strategical points (approaches) of a more sustainable tourism are shown. The realisation of sustainable tourism can be an economical opportunity for tourism companies in the long term, but according to the author the immediate risks involved in such a strategy can outweigh the benefits. There are also limits in carrying out more sustainable tourism programmes.     

Collaborative Tourism Planning: A Case Study of Cusco,Peru

This research examines issues concerning the collaborative approach towards tourism planning, with a focus on Cusco, Peru. The research begins with a review of key themes related to collaborative tourism planning, and then explores four issues in relation to collaborative tourism planning in Cusco. These are the vision of tourism development among tourism stakeholders; collaboration and coordination between the multiple parties involved in tourism; input from the tourism industry and other interest groups in tourism planning; and constraints to and facilitators of collaboration and coordination. The research indicates that despite an awareness of the benefits of collaboration in tourism planning generally, collaboration is not yet a major part of the tourism development process in Cusco. The main reasons for the lack of collaboration are outlined using the views of the main stakeholders, as well as suggestions for ways in which future collaboration can be developed.     

Moving from pilgrimage to responsible tourism: the case of Palestine

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, Palestine has seen complicated changes in its political circumstances, most notably the creation of Israel in 1948 and the 1967 war, where Israel occupied the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. These events have created catastrophic political, economic and social facts which deeply affected the life of the Palestinian people. In this context, tourism became a political tool in the supremacy and domination of the Israeli establishment over land, and people, and an instrument for preventing the Palestinians from enjoying the benefits and the fruits of cultural and human interaction on which tourism thrives. Israel controls all access to Palestine (land and sea borders), most of the Palestinian water resources and all movements of people and goods from, to and within Palestine. This article assesses the role that tourism may play in promoting peace by presenting the Palestinian Initiative for Responsible Tourism – code of conduct – and its contribution to peace. In addition, issues of sustainability and the triple bottom line will be evaluated which could go a long way towards healing some of the divisions in the Palestinian/Israeli society.     

Social impacts of tourism: an Australian regional case study

As the support of host communities is a precondition for a sustainable industry, regional social impact studies are a crucial input to tourism planning and decision‐making. This study assessed the social impacts of tourism in a rural region of Australia where tourism is an important sector of the economy. As well as providing data to aid regional tourism planning, this study identifies differences in personal and community‐wide impacts; advances understanding of the factors that influence residents' perceptions of tourism impacts; and assesses the degree to which tourism activity associated with protected areas contributes to the identified social impacts. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Indigenous Tourism Policy in Australia: 25 Years of Rhetoric and Economic Rationalism

Successive Australian federal and State governments have produced tourism policies to facilitate the development of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander [ATSI] tourism. However, the effectiveness and appropriateness of these policies has been questioned. This paper describes a qualitative study examining federal and Queensland State governments' ATSI tourism policies during the period 1975 to 1999. Three main findings of the study were: (1) ATSI tourism policies are published in an ad hoc manner and appear to be related to a reactive approach by governments to broader ATSI social and economic issues; (2) economic concerns dominate ATSI tourism policies and emphasise the commodification of indigenous tourism; and (3) policies are strongly reflective of an economic-rationalist ideology. The study concludes that the emphasis on economic rationalism assists Australian tourism enterprises to be internationally competitive but may create undesirable consequences for indigenous tourism stakeholders.     

Ecological tourism in the state image policy structure. Experience and problems of modern Russia

The article deals with the problems of ecological tourism in Russia. The authors give various approaches to the understanding of ecological tourism in modern science, analyse the reasons of interest in this kind of tourism, consider its types and identify specific features. The article provides an overview of the main regions and countries where ecological tourism is developed at a high level and considers some national policy models in the field of ecological tourism. Specific attention is paid to the analysis of the development of ecological tourism in Russia and its current status; the examples of different programmes aiming at support of ecological tourism are given. Specific impetus is given to Russia's resources for the development of ecological tourism, for example, natural landscapes, national parks and nature heritage sites. The authors explore the main challenges to ecological tourism in Russia, identify factors that hinder its development and suggest measures to improve the ecological tourism in the Russian Federation. The authors focus on the projects that promote the improvement of Russia's image as an eco-touristic destination. The authors pay specific attention to the analysis of international cooperation in this field. The article discusses various projects carried out within the framework of bilateral cooperation. The article discusses the role of ecological tourism as a tool for image policy. The article analyses in detail which elements of the Russian image are under the influence of ecological tourism and what are the future prospects of ecological tourism.     

Identifying micro-destinations and providing statistical information: a pilot study in the Canary Islands

Municipalities and regions are often used as an object of tourism analysis at the subnational level. This occurs because administrative borders are used to implement tourism policies and collect statistical information. However, administrative boundaries may not always be suitable for studying tourism destinations at a local level. Sometimes, particularly in high-density tourism destinations, several differentiated tourism areas occupy a single municipality; tourism areas may, and often do, extend beyond municipal boundaries and tourism destinations may not occupy the whole of the municipal area. As such, a new level of analysis is often required: the micro-destination. There are few tourism concepts as imprecise as that of the destination. Therefore, the process of identifying and establishing the boundaries of a micro-destination is by no means a straightforward one. This paper presents six criteria for establishing the boundaries of this type of tourism area. Of these six, the two primary criteria used are: the concentration of tourism establishments; and tourism typologies and supply characteristics. These criteria have been applied as part of a pilot study in the Canary Islands. Statistical information for nine micro-destinations is generated using the geolocation of tourism establishments together with information obtained from both supply-side and demand-side surveys.     

Energy tourism: An emerging field of study

After conceptualizing the interrelationships between energy and tourism, the authors provide a definition of energy tourism as a new niche of industrial tourism, theorize on how it overlaps with other types of special interest tourism, and discuss specifics concerning its forms, locales, and possible societal impacts. Potential directions, along with research questions, for future research in the field of energy tourism are proposed. Then, the results of an explorative pilot study of energy tourism in the Czech Republic are presented to give a first insight into the proposed questions. Questionnaire surveys completed by tourists and operators of three energy tourism attractions – so-called Coal Safaris (guided tours through surface coal mines, observing minescapes and mining machinery in full operation), a nuclear power plant information centre, and Dragon Kite Festivals under wind turbines – have focused on exploring the motivations and perceived benefits of energy tourism for organizations; tourists' motivations for, and experience from, visiting; and any changes in attitudes towards current energy development dilemmas by visitors afterwards.     

Tourism as sustainable development? The Albanian experience of ‘transition’

Despite significant increases in international tourist arrivals and tourism receipts since the fall of communism in central and eastern europe as a whole, in the rural southeastern corner of the continent, a region well‐endowed with a range of natural and cultural tourism resources, instability and uncertainty have constrained international tourism development in the 1990s. This regional context for tourism development and the specific issues which surround a tourism‐led development model in a small developing country are addressed with particular reference to the recent experience of Albania. As part of a sustainable rural development programme, rural tourism's role as a counterbalance to rejuvenated mass coastal tourism is evaluated. Potentially an important vehicle for cultural expression and employment regeneration, the adoption of rural tourism as a development vehicle is faced with a number of obstacles, which national, and perhaps international, development programmes need to address. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A double life cycle: determining tourism development in Macedonia

This article investigates the symptoms of tourism development in Macedonia by applying the Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) model. The study explores the political context and the government's role in policy-making and implementation at each TALC stage. It also attempts to assess key arenas of governmental influence on tourism, such as privatization, legislation, tourism promotion, and fiscal policy. To this end, we conducted an analysis of secondary data sources with the aim of assessing the current stage of tourism development. Our analysis indicates that tourism in Macedonia is presently in the development stage but that future decline is still possible. Our general findings indicate an insufficiently developed tourist supply, underlining the importance of taking action as a prerequisite for a well-established tourism planning process. Finally, the study reviews and offers a better understanding of the manner in which Macedonia's tourism policies are changing in a complex region, with the aim of blending top-down decision-making with elements of grass roots involvement in a bid to create a solution to the country's search for a new future.     

The challenges of economic diversification through tourism: the case of Abu Dhabi

In recent years, tourism has become a ubiquitous vehicle for economic development and diversification and, for many regions and countries both in the developed and less developed worlds, tourism has become an integral element of economic development policy. Even those countries that, in the past, have had neither the desire nor the need to seek alternative economic sectors increasingly have been turning to tourism as a potentially effective means of achieving economic growth and diversification. As this paper argues, however, the justification for using tourism as an agent of economic development must be treated with some caution. Focusing upon the case of Abu Dhabi, the oil‐rich emirate that in recent years, and in common with other countries in the region, has been seeking economic diversification through tourism to counter instability in global oil prices, a number of challenges to tourism development are identified. These may be overcome collectively through significant investment in product and promotion but, as the example of Abu Dhabi demonstrates, tourism may not always be an easy or cost‐effective means of achieving economic growth and diversification. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.