Toward a framework for tourism education: Problems and prospects

Jafari, Jafar, J. R. Brent Ritchie, Toward a Framework For Tourism Education: Problems and Prospects. Annals of Tourism Research 1981, VIII(1):13–34. The purpose of this article is to offer a framework for analysis and discussion of tourism education. It first adopts a definition of tourism within which interaction among its components and extraneous aspects are considered. Specifically, it addresses issues related to travelers, tourism goods and services, socio-physical factors, and the host-guest relationship. Second, it discusses some social science disciplines relevant to the study of tourism, with reference to some methods of research and teaching of tourism. Finally, the article moves on to present some other issues pertinent to curriculum development in tourism. Throughout the paper, a number of questions are raised and attempts are made to point out some critical issues in tourism education.     

Assessing tourism's more complex consequences

Runyan, Dean and Chung-Tong Wu, “Assessing Tourism's more Complex Consequences,” Annals of Tourism Research, October/December 1979, VI(4):448–463. The development of tourism can have extensive physical, social and economic impacts. Certain of these impacts can be classified as relatively complex: those that take many variables to describe, are difficult to quantify and which are sensitive to policy or other difficult-to-predict interventions. The involvement of residents in an impact estimation process can serve to both forecast and appraise these relatively complex impacts. Relatively few techniques are available for estimation of complex impacts which do not rely almost exclusively on the intuition of professionals. Those that make use of lay individual input include Delbecq procedures, Delphi and IMPASSE. These techniques can be used to identify potential impacts by structuring group discussions. A two-stage approach to estimating complex impacts is proposed.     

Site and situation strategy in tourism planning: A Mexican case study

Mexico has experienced all the effects, good and ill, of a large and expanding tourist trade. Tourism's negative consequences--economic dependency, crime, cultural erosion--have manifested themselves in tourist ghettos along Mexico's northern border, on the Mexican Riviera, and in the capital. This study is an assesment of contemporary Mexican tourism planning as it relates to these problems, and further as it seeks to make tourism a stimulus to economically depressed areas of the nation. A case study approach is utilized to identify the strategy of site and situation selection for the new programmed resort complex at Cancun on the Caribbean coast of the Yucatan peninsula. It is concluded that Cancun embodies, at least for Mexico, a radical departure in tourism development. The resort is situated to attract a large foreign clientele and to create the greatest possible positive economic and social impact on a resident Mexican population that has suffered chronic underdevelopment.     

Rethinking the sociology of tourism

Two principal general approaches to tourism are criticized. It is argued against the tendency to over generalize, to propose universal models and to conceive of the dynamics of tourism as a unilinear process. Instead, a multiplicity of types, different typologies and a multilinear approach to the dynamics of tourism should be favored. It is further argued that conceptual schemes should be further elaborated, illustrating the argument by an elaboration of MacCannell's fundamental concepts. The article emphasizes the need for some basic problems in tourism research to be reformulated; it proposes a strategy for research which, while preserving theoretical pluralism and eclecticism, will safeguard continuity and the ability to generalize by developing a common research style for the sociology of tourism.     

以理性思维构建旅游学科

文章从对旅游学科尴尬处境的分析入手,讨论了如何以理性思维构建旅游学科问题.文章回顾了国内外旅游学术研究历程,提出并分析了旅游学科得以建立的三大基础,即文献基础、理论基础、人才基础以及各自的内容和特点.文章认为,旅游学科的文献基础包括学术研究文献、旅游实业界经营管理运作文献和政府的政策法规文献,以学术研究文献为核心和重点.最后,文章讨论了旅游学科的理论框架和研究方法论问题,认为旅游学科的理论框架由基础理论、专业理论和应用理论三个层面构成,最能体现旅游研究特点的方法论是跨文化比较研究.     

Social planning for tourism in the developing countries

The usual perspectives on tourism planning have been economic. This paper argues for the need to take much more explicit account of non-economic costs (and benefits) in this field, and links the discussion to questions that have preoccupied those concerned with general issues of development in recent years. It emphasises that planners act in specific socio-politocal contexts, and that it is especially the dynamics of class structures and theis expression in the power relations at local and national levels which influence outcomes in this field. Practical issues of social planning for tourism are discussed, and the dangers of development which is too massive and too fast are stressed. Some attention is also paid to the role of transnational enterprises in the tourism field, and to the question of bargaining at the international level.     

旅游的本质及其认识方法——从学科自觉的角度看

本文从旅游知识共同体(学科)构建的角度出发,针对目前流行的旅游定义所存在的过于宽泛的问题,阐述了笔者的观点:旅游是人们利用余暇在异地获得的一次休闲体验。这一定义涉及对旅游本质的认识,同时也决定着旅游知识共同体的核心、内涵和边界。笔者认为,区别旅游与其他类型的旅行,有利于旅游以及相关学科的建设,能避免当前旅游以及相关专业高等教育所面临的困境。     

Tourism course proposal for a social science curriculum

As the economic and environmental impacts of mass tourism grow, it becomes vital that information concerning the industry is disseminated to as wide an audience as possible. Since many of the future opinion leaders attend university, one area where a balanced assessment of tourism is required is within the social science curriculums of universities. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate some issues and challenges involved with the introduction of a tourism course during this era of fiscal restraint and accountability. It is suggested that a new course proposal should include a comprehensive definition of tourism and its component parts; that it should consider its scholarly significance and operational feasibility within the university community; and that its place within and contribution to a specific discipline be demonstrated, since it is easier to innovate within the existing university structure.     

关于“艾斯特”定义的几点探讨——基于逻辑学视角

文章介绍了"艾斯特"定义从德语国家起源并传播至国内的过程,以逻辑学作为工具对其进行分析,指出因其在表述中包含隐喻而不是真实定义,可以将其认定为名义定义。其学术价值在于界定一个新的认知对象。对当前关于"旅游"定义的属概念进行分析后发现,这些定义并非是关于同一个概念的定义;应科学地对不同的定义进行比较和分析。关于"旅游现象"的不同定义未必相互矛盾。正确的定义对于指导旅游发展的实践工作、引领旅游学术研究均具有其独特的作用。当前关于"艾斯特"定义的部分观点有失偏颇,它并不是一个循环定义,不应为当前存在的一些问题负责。在新的历史环境下,应坚持在将其作为一个语词定义的前提下认识其与新的社会事实之间的冲突和矛盾,对"艾斯特"定义的学习和研究还应该在争论中继续深入。     

Policy choices in South Asian tourism development

Government tourism initiatives in developing countries have been applauded by tourism scholars as a means of assisting a private sector that has insufficient resources and assuring public control of the industry's future. This article reviews the tourism development experience of seven South Asian countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, the Maldive Republic) on five policy options: public versus private tourism development; domestic versus international tourism; class versus mass tourism; centralization versus decentralization; and integrated versus enclave tourism. All of the governments in the region have been involved in tourism development to some degree, but they have shown considerable variation in their responses to these policy choices. Which choices are made by a specific country, it is suggested, will depend as much on political and cultural considerations as upon economic factors.     

关于旅游学科发展与旅游管理专业课程体系建设的思考

本文提出了中国旅游事业以及高等旅游教育与科研近30年发展中几个主要方面问题:旅游和高等旅游教育科研的所得和所失、旅游的基本性质、高等旅游教育的定性、旅游学能否成为一门独立学科、旅游学科体系的建设、旅游管理专业课程体系构成、旅游管理专业主干课程及内容的确定,分析了这些问题的根源.在此基础上集中阐述了作者对旅游学科定性和定位、旅游学科理论体系结构、旅游学科的研究方法论、旅游管理专业课程体系构建等问题的观点.     

Development of advanced tourism studies in Holland

Bodewes, Theo, Development of Advanced Tourism Studies in Holland. Annals of Tourism Research 1981, VIII(1):35–51. The entry of tourism studies into the field of advanced education is often a difficult process. Theory and practice sometimes serve conflicting interests. In the Netherlands an option has been taken for a theoretical, multi-disciplinary approach with links to the field of practice. Within this framework, tourism is indissolubly connected with leisure and recreation, leisure being the core of studies. This implies that the universities should educate leisure economists, leisure sociologists, etc., and that advanced professional educational institutions should educate leisure experts. This paper discusses whether the problems and solutions in the Netherlands are recognizable and/or useful abroad, and whether one institution can learn from the experiences of others.     

从旅游学的研究角度看旅游高等教育

在高等教育改革的背景下 ,职业教育和专业教育的关系被进一步关注 ,而旅游行业本身的特点 ,对旅游高等教育提出了更多要求。本文着重从旅游学的研究角度 ,包括理论方面和研究现状 ,尤其是旅游学的基础理论、学科分支和学科成熟度等方面作了分析 ,提出对旅游学研究的把握是旅游高等教育安排中要深入考量的因素     

The framework of tourism : Towards a definition of tourism, tourist, and the tourist industry

Leiper, Neil, “The Framework of Tourism: Towards a Definition of Tourism, Tourist, and the Tourist Industry,” Annals of Tourism Research, 1979, VI(4):390–407. A framework for the general study of tourism is discussed. Three approaches to the topic: economic, technical, and holistic are identified and analysed; it is argued that its multi facets require a holistic definition. A systems methodology is used to develop a new definition of tourism. Five elements are isolated: tourists, three geographical elements (generating region, transit route, and destination region), and a tourist industry. The process of tourism is dissected to show that it is inherently a partially-industrialized one, and the tourist industry is shown to contain several sectors with functional and spatial connections across the system. Suggested applications of the framework are proposed, in academic research, education, business and government arenas of tourism. The main theme is that tourism's many facets are connected and that it is both possible and desirable to include an explicit recognition of those connections in general studies of the subject.

Résumé

Leiper, Neil, “Le Cadre théorique du tourisme: Pour une définition du tourisme, du touriste, et de l'industrie touristique,” Annals of Tourism Research, octobre/decembre 1979, VI(4):390–407. On discute un cadre théorique pour l'étude générale du tourisme. On présente et analyse trois façons d'aborder le sujet: économique, technique et globale, et on propose que l'aspect multi-dimensionnel du tourisme du tourisme fait que le tourisme exige une définition globale. On emploie une méthodologie de systémes pour développer une nouvelle définition pour le tourisme. On réussit á isoler cinq éléments: touristes, industrie touristique, région génératrice, route de passage, et région de destination, ces trois derniers formant les éléments géographiques. On disséque le processus du tourisme pour montrer qu'il est fondamentalement mi-industrialisé. On montre que l'industrie touristique comprend plusieurs secteurs, avec des liaisons fonctionnelles et spatiales á travers le systéme. On propose des applications de ce cadre dans les domaines suivants du tourisme: recherche universitaire, éducation, affaires et gouvernement. Enfin, la thése de cet article est que les divers aspects du tourisme sont reliés et qu'il est á la fois possible et désirable de reconnaître ces liaisons d'une facon explicite dans les études générales du sujet.     

旅游与接待业研究:中国与国外的比较--兼论中国旅游学科的成熟度

本文主要探讨了中国旅游研究与国外旅游研究所存在的差距。根据作者利用网络资源所做的调查，本文得出了这样的结论：与国外同行的研究水平相比，中国的旅游研究还存在一定的差距。表现在：学术期刊以及研究文献的数量都远不及英语国家；中国的旅游学术界往往追逐由各级政府部门所引导的热门话题而进行研究；在学术研究上由于缺乏充分的跟进研究，使有价值的学术积累非常单薄；中国的旅游学还很难成为一个独立的学科。作者通过实证分析的方法对上述命题进行了探讨。     

Roles for geographers in the international tourist industry

International tourism is an industry that is second only to petroleum as a commodity in world trade. There are many positions available in the international tourist industry to geographers who wish to pursue them. Nearly every geographic specialization, topical or regional, can be accomodated. There are opportunities for members of the discipline with experience ranging from the undergraduate to the post-doctoral levels in research and planning, information and marketing services, and technical services. Types of activities include development research and planning, location analysis, teaching, cartography, and others.     

国际上流行的旅游定义和概念综述——兼对旅游本质的再认识

本文对于目前国际上流行的30种旅游定义和概念做了梳理和归纳,指出旅游定义的多义性,以及由此给旅游学科建设造成"困境".作者借鉴了胡塞尔的现象学哲学方法,从两个层面重新定义了旅游,为建构旅游学科的理论体系和学术框架提供了一种新的可能.     

Goal programming: Planning process of tourism organizations

The complex rapidly changing environment faced by tourism organization officials makes tourism planning extremely difficult. Goal programming can aid the tourism planner in appraising the goal attainment potential associated with proposed tourism marketing program alternatives. By changing priorities of goals, budgetary limitations, and organizational constraints, the policy maker can test the effect of changes before they are implemented. By utilizing goal programming, a tourism organization can more systematically evaluate the nature and relative importance of organizational goals, critical constraints affecting the organization and marketing program alternatives.     

Ethnic tourism,the state,and cultural change in Southeast Asia

International tourism in Southeast Asia increasingly involves a restructuring of the relationship between the state and local cultures. A typology identifies the roles that culture and ethnicity play in Southeast Asian tourism. Tourism involves the state in new relationships with local cultures—as planner of tourist development, as marketer of cultural meanings, as arbiter of cultural practices displayed to tourists, and as an arena for new forms of politics. The state's role is contradictory and complex, as tourism leads to increased state intervention in local cultures and, at the same time, provides cultural groups with new means of pressing claims against the state.