Subsidizing charitable contributions: a natural field experiment comparing matching and rebate subsidies

We report the results of a field experiment conducted in conjunction with a mailed fundraising campaign of a nonprofit organization. The experiment is designed to compare the response of donors to subsidies in the form of matching amounts or rebated amounts. Matching subsidies are used by many corporations as an employee benefit; the US federal tax system encourages giving using a rebate subsidy by making donations tax deductible. The design includes a control group and two levels of subsidy of each type. Our main result is that matching subsidies result in larger total donations to charities than rebate subsidies, a result that is qualitatively similar to the lab findings. The estimated price elasticities for the matching subsidy are very similar to (and insignificantly different from) the lab experiments, while rebate subsidies lead to lower contributions in the field than in the lab. Since rebates in the field involve substantial lags and additional complications as compared with the “instant rebates” of the lab, this latter difference is not unexpected. The matching results are an important step in validating lab estimates of responsiveness to subsidies of charitable giving.

---

Electronic Supplementary Material  The online version of this article () contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.      

Market structure and corporate charitable donations: some Canadian evidence for 1976 and 1981

The business of business, not charity.

Say eleemosynary its more confusing.

Whatever, as long as we don't given 'em any cash.

Harv Antione, ‘The Buzz Words of Entrepreneurship’

in Apocryphal Northern Tales

This paper investigates the general determinants of corporate charitable donations in Canada and, in particular, the impact of imperfectly-competitive market structure. We utilize a profit-maximizing model and assume that charitable donations occur only if, by performing an advertising/public relations function, they increase revenue; or if, by acting as a fringe benefit, they result in a reduction in wage costs. In this context, because only firms in imperfect markets generate the rents from which donations can be made, we anticipate a positive relationship between donations and a measure of imperfect competition (concentration). The data is a cross-section sample of 38, 3- and 4-digit SIC manufacturing industries pooled for 1976 and 1981. The major findings are that: the results are generally compatible with the predictions of the model; concentration is a significant determinant of donations although non-linear; the cost of giving (the tax rate) is appropriately positive; and there are significant negative relationships for measures of foreign ownership and wage rates.     

Price, unit value, and quality demanded

Given the paucity of quality price data, it is common to rely on “unit value” (average expenditure per unit) as a proxy for price, but this is an imperfect proxy if households respond to price increases by substituting to lower quality goods. This paper draws on survey data that contain both unit value and price to estimate the severity of quality substitution in Indonesia, finding that it is prevalent. The paper next calculates price elasticities that correct for quality substitution, evaluating and ultimately rejecting a commonly used method for calculating price elasticities using only unit value data. Finally, it demonstrates that quality substitution can result in biased price elasticities even when price is perfectly observed.     

On PPP,unit roots and panels

In this paper we use a combination of time series unit root and cointegration analysis and the Bai and Ng (Econometrica 72:1127–1187, 2004) factor model approach to assess the purchasing power parity hypothesis for four real exchange rate panels. Our main findings are twofold: First, we find robust evidence for nonstationary common components in the real exchange rate panels and hence no evidence for PPP. Second, the presence of nonstationary common components is consistent with rejections of the unit root null hypothesis when applying a battery of first and second generation panel unit root tests, which are known to be adversely affected in the presence of common nonstationary components.     

Ad valorem versus unit taxes: monopolistic competition, heterogeneous firms, and intra-industry reallocations

Real-world industries are composed from heterogeneous firms and substantial intra-industry reallocations take place, i.e. high productivity firms squeeze out low productivity firms. Previous tax-tool comparisons have not included these central forces of industry structure. This paper examines a general equilibrium monopolistic competition model with heterogeneous firms and intra-industry reallocations. We show that the welfare superiority of ad valorem over unit taxes under imperfect competition is not only preserved but amplified. The additional difference between the tools arises because unit taxes distort relative prices, which in turn reduces average industry productivity through reallocations (the survival and increased market share of lower productivity firms). Importantly, numerical solutions of the model reveal that the relative welfare loss from using the unit tax increases dramatically in the degree of firm heterogeneity.     

Inpatient nursing unit volume, length of stay, cost, and mortality

Nursing unit volume-outcome relationships exist for patients assigned selected DRGs. This finding suggests that, in some cases, aggregating inpatients with similar clinical conditions may result in lower cost of care, shorter length of stay, and fewer hospital deaths.     

Weighted symmetric tests for a unit root: response functions,power, test dependence and test conflict

The most frequently applied test statistics for a unit root are the Dickey–Fuller tests, which are built into many econometric packages along with MacKinnon's empirical response functions. This article provides empirical response functions for some easy to compute alternative test statistics that are generally much more powerful than the Dickey–Fuller tests; specifically, these are the Dickey–Fuller tests and the weighted symmetric versions of the and tests. The empirical response functions presented here take into account adjustments for lag length in the maintained regression, and also extend the design of the simulation experiments compared to previous work. A second aspect of this study concerns the widespread practice in applied econometrics of using more than one test for the same feature without an assessment of the implications for the cumulative significance level and probability of test conflict. Tests for a unit root being are a leading example of this practice. Using the extended set of unit root tests considered here, the extent of test dependence is simulated and overall type one error calculated. Two empirical applications illustrate the key principles.     

Stochastic unit root processes: Maximum likelihood estimation,and new Lagrange multiplier and likelihood ratio tests

We show in this study that the maximum likelihood estimators of stochastic unit root (STUR) processes are consistent and asymptotically normally distributed. We also present two new tests for STUR. We first propose a Lagrange multiplier test and show that it has a standard χ² distribution asymptotically. We also propose a likelihood ratio test and show that it has an asymptotic distribution of 50–50 mixture of χ² and a point mass at 0. As an empirical example, we test the existence of STUR in the Canadian real exchange rate and explore the implication of STUR on the validity of purchasing power parity.     

DRAMs, fiber and energy compared with three models of market penetration

When a new technology is introduced in the market, this technology generally follows an S-shaped curve, especially if measured on a relative (market share) basis. Marchetti and Nakicenovic and Norton and Bass have modeled the multivariant case of various technologies introduced at different times. A new, simple and flexible model has been proposed based on potential penetration. Potential penetration is penetration on the assumption that no other new technology will enter the market. In a stable competitive environment, potential penetration curves are typically positively sloped S-curves. The new model gives a good fit in markets with a limited number of competitors, which are capable of totally cannibalizing previous generations of technologies. It also fits well with markets with many competitors in a competitive equilibrium situation. Examples are the Dynamic Random Access Memory chips (DRAMs), fiber and energy market. The new model features fewer variables compared with existing models and can readily be adapted to technological processes with time varying parameters, which is particularly important in volatile competitive markets.     

Differences in the determinants and targeting of antidumping: China and India compared

Despite both being developing countries, China and India have markedly contrasting patterns in their use and targeting of antidumping (AD) measures. We explore the factors driving AD use by these two countries, considering in turn macroeconomic, strategic and other determinants. We find more regular or systematic features of AD use by China, while India displays a less systematic pattern of AD use. Economic growth, AD club effect and free trade agreement participation are shown to constrain AD use by China. Compared to India, AD use by China is also more sensitive across industries. Furthermore, China targets developed countries more than developing countries, while India is less discriminating with respect to the country type it targets.     

The unit root problem: Affinities between ergodicity and stationarity,its practical contradictions for central bank policy,and some consideration of alternatives

The initial focus in this article is the problem of mismatch between policy goals and statistical analysis, based on how data is transformed and processed. This intrinsically raises ontological issues regarding the nature of an economy within which policy is made and to which statistical analysis is applied. These are of general significance to post Keynesians irrespective of the position they take on the specifics of the ergodicity debate. However, they involve some issues that overlap with some aspects of that debate. The problem as posed in this article is specific and involves a practical contradiction regarding central bank policy and the problem of unit roots. The authors then consider some additional ways in which one can go beyond common practice based on the example of Forward Guidance in the United Kingdom and a more institutional approach to post Keynesian analysis.     

The Polish exchange rate system: A unit root and cointegration analysis

In October 1991 Poland has established a crawling peg regime in which the zloty is tied to a currency basket and devalued with a monthly rate of crawl. If the monetary authorities are successful in defending the crawling peg the basket rate measured in Polish zloty is supposed to be stationary. Furthermore, a stable long-run relationship between the zloty-U.S. dollar rate and the basket's value expressed in U.S. dollar is expected to exist. The results of the unit root and cointegration analysis indicate that the monetary authorities have been able to defend the crawling peg for the sample periods under study, although it seems that not all requirements of the exchange rate regime have been met. The foreign exchange markets, however, have not supported the relationships derived from the crawling peg system after the introduction of the free floating system in April 2000.The final version of this paper has been prepared while I was a Jean Monnet Fellow at the European University Institute. I would like to thank the EUI for the award of the Fellowship and its hospitality. Moreover, I am grateful to Helmut Lütkepohl, Anja Schulz, Ralf Brüggemann, and two anonymous referees for many helpful comments and suggestions. I also thank the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, SFB 373, for financial support.     

Production functions and distributions of unit factor productivities: Uncovering the link

We derive a reversible “endogenous technology choice transform,” according to which firm-level production functions and distributions of unit factor productivities are two sides of the same coin. The Cobb–Douglas function relates to Pareto distributions, and the CES to Weibull distributions.     

Up Around the Bend: Linear and nonlinear models of the UK economy compared

A variety of methods - including vector autoregression (Bayesian and nonBayesian) and neural networks - are used to construct models of the UK economy, and their forecasting performance is compared.     

The self-enforcing provisions of oil and gas unit operating agreements: theory and evidence

This article extends the existing theory and empirical investigationof unitization contracts. It highlights the importance of incentive-compatibilityand self-enforcement and the bargaining problems faced in achievingviable, long-term contracts. We argue that only if the partiesto a unitization contract have unit production shares that arethe same as their cost shares will the contract be incentivecompatible. Using a database of 60 unit operating agreements,we measure the industry's actual behavior against the principlesof production from a common pool. Our survey of units that haveonly one production phase and that are relatively homogeneousreveals that such equal sharing rules are always found and theyappear to encourage the parties to behave optimally. In morecomplex units with multiple production phases and/or separateconcentrations of oil and gas (gas caps) we find deviationsfrom the theoretical ideal. In the case of multiphase units,we find equal cost and production shares within phases, butnot across phases. A preset trigger for shifting from one productionphase to the next helps to maintain optimal behavior. For gascap units, however, we generally do not find the equal sharingrule. Conflicts and rent dissipation follow as illustrated bythe case of the Prudhoe Bay Unit. The article describes thedesirable contract rules for avoiding moral hazard. It alsoshows how the effects of those rules can be replicated in difficultsituations.     

The oil price shocks and the unit root hypothesis: the UK experience

Critics of the standard Dickey–Fuller and augmented Dickey–Fuller tests for unit roots argue that when there have been significant structural breaks during the sample period, these tests are often biased toward acceptance. Allowing for a one-time change in the slope of the trend function often leads to rejection of the unit-root hypothesis which implies that business cycles are temporary fluctuations around a stable but possibly shifting trend path. The validity of the unit root hypothesis in connection with the two oil crises in the seventies is re-examined using quarterly time-series data for a set of UK macroeconomic series. The empirical evidence presented supports the view that only those shocks associated with the oil price crises had a persistent effect on the UK economy.     

Cost-effectiveness of insulin detemir compared with NPH insulin in people with type 2 diabetes in Denmark,Finland, Norway,and Sweden

Abstract

Objective:

To assess the cost-effectiveness of insulin detemir compared with Neutral Protamine Hagedorn (NPH) insulin when initiating insulin treatment in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden.

Methods:

Efficacy and safety data were derived from a 20-week multi-centre randomized controlled head-to-head clinical trial comparing insulin detemir and NPH insulin in insulin naïve people with T2DM, and short-term (1-year) cost effectiveness analyses were performed. As no significant differences in HbA_1c were observed between the two treatment arms, the model was based on significant differences in favour of insulin detemir in frequency of hypoglycaemia (Rate-Ratio?=?0.52; CI?=?0.44–0.61) and weight gain (Δ?=?0.9?kg). Model outcomes were measured in Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALYs) using published utility estimates. Acquisition costs for insulin and direct healthcare costs associated with non-severe hypoglycaemic events were obtained from National Health Service public sources. One-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed.

Results:

Based on lower incidence of non-severe hypoglycaemic events and less weight gain, the QALY gain from initiating treatment with insulin detemir compared with NPH insulin was 0.01 per patient per year. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios for the individual countries were: Denmark, Danish Kroner 170,852 (€22,933); Finland, €28,349; Norway, Norwegian Kroner 169,789 (€21,768); and Sweden, Swedish Krona 226,622 (€25,097) per QALY gained. Possible limitations of the study are that data on hypoglycaemia and relative weight benefits from a clinical trial were combined with hypoglycaemia incidence data from observational studies. These populations may have slightly different patient characteristics.

Conclusions:

The lower risk of non-severe hypoglycaemia and less weight gain associated with using insulin detemir compared with NPH insulin when initiating insulin treatment in insulin naïve patients with type 2 diabetes provide economic benefits in the short-term. Based on cost/QALY threshold values, this represents good value for money in the Nordic countries. Using a short-term modelling approach may be conservative, as reduced frequency of hypoglycaemia and less weight gain may also have positive long-term health-related implications.