The incremental construction land differentiated management framework: the perspective of land quota trading in China

Construction land plays a vanguard role in China’s rapid urbanization process. However, confront with massive loss of farmland resources, the highly centralized land-use planning and management system established by the central government in 1998 stipulates that the red line of 1.8 billion mu of farmland should be guarantee to ensure food security. A series of land management system innovations such as “the replacement of basic farmland in different places”, “the compensated supplement of farmland in different places”, and “the land conversion quotas transregional transaction” in Zhejiang province have received increasing attention, under the premise that neither dissipating the economic development efficiency nor breaking the constraints of various planning quotas. Inspired by the “three-phase” efficiency improvement based on the concept known as the “adaptive efficiency”, this article first proposes the inherent policy shortcomings as incalculability, inseparability, and uncontrollability. Then, adopting the mathematical model derivation and economic analysis tool, we demonstrate that the “general allocation + competition allocation + rewarded allocation” of new construction land quota allocation scheme has improved the three-stage Pareto efficiency. Relying on the network analysis of the cross-regional trading in Zhejiang province, the “time hotspot”, “regional hotspot”, Siphon effect, price fluctuation and inequality of opportunity are also observed in the process of trading. The authorities should play a quasi “wedge-like” blocking role in due course. It is therefore suggested that a differentiated management scheme should be adopted considering the variance in regional resource endowments and social ecosystem. This paper expected to shed light on improving construction land-use efficiency for China and other similarly placed developing countries.     

Agricultural land protection in China: a case study of local governance in Zhejiang Province

China's rapid economic development following the 1978 reforms has resulted in significant economic, social and environmental change. One consequence of this change has been the accentuation of an existing trend of agricultural land loss and degradation. Although the 1978 reforms and their impacts have been subjected to considerable scrutiny, relatively little research has been directed towards the relationship between the evolution of local government structures and practices and the implementation of agricultural land protection policies. This paper presents an analysis of this relationship in Huzhou Municipality, Zhejiang Province. Zhejiang Province is situated on the eastern seaboard and exhibited the highest average annual per capita growth in China between 1978 and 1995. Huzhou Municipality is a growth centre in the northern part of the province. A synthesis of the factual knowledge and perceptions of 40 key-informants suggests that despite the development of a comprehensive legal framework for agricultural land protection, the interpretation of policy at local levels continues to permit the loss of agricultural land (and attendant environmental costs) to be traded-off against increased economic growth. This suggests a need to re-evaluate the role of local levels of government in China with respect to agricultural land protection issues; to look as much at the ways policies are implemented as at policies themselves. The devolution of administrative responsibility in China and the increasing influence of powerful local economic interests will provide an impetus for such a re-focussing of research at local levels.     

新增建设用地指令性配额管理的市场取向改进

研究目的：通过案例分析，揭示改进农地非农化开发指令性配额管理体制的方向。研究方法：文献资料法和案例分析法。研究结果：在中国农地非农化开发中，地方政府是第一顺序的土地开发者，中央以新增建设用地配额的形式统筹分配土地开发权，这一指令性配额管理体制与土地公有制以及当前所处的转型发展阶段总体上是适应的，但这一体制的“刚性”也引发了很多矛盾。改进指令性配额管理的可能路径是实行新增建设用地配额与其耕地保有量挂钩，构建新增建设用地指标市场对配额进行调剂。研究结论：沿着可转让配额方向推动农地非农化开发的指令性配额管理体制改革，是实现最严格的土地管理制度与市场机制有效衔接和协调的一个可选路径。     

建设用地减量化过程中的土地指标市场化机制研究——以上海市为例

研究目的:基于上海市建设用地减量化的政策背景,分析上海市土地指标交易现状与存在的问题,探讨如何建立土地指标市场化交易机制,为上海市土地利用制度改革提供经验借鉴。研究方法:文献研究法、比较分析法和实地调查法。研究结果:上海市土地指标交易存在交易半径较狭小、市场化程度较低、定价机制不合理、收益分配不完善等一系列问题,应研究市场竞争与政府调控相结合的指标交易机制。研究结论:针对经济快速发展与土地指标短缺的现实矛盾,上海市政府应从机制构建与配套措施两方面进行土地指标市场化交易体系建设,以推动上海市土地市场的发展。     

Does China’s ‘increasing versus decreasing balance’ land-restructuring policy restructure rural life? Evidence from Dongfan Village,Shaanxi Province

China’s ‘increasing versus decreasing balance’ land-restructuring policy is an innovative, top-down institutional land reform. Using the case study method, this study reviews the policy by examining its restructuring impacts on rural life. By deconstructing the procedures involved in the transfer of land development rights, we clarify that the economic benefits obtained from the trade of land development rights fund the entire project. Thus, the allocation of these economic benefits plays a pivotal role in restructuring rural living, production and ecology. We further analyze the case of Dongfan in Shaanxi Province, and our results show that approximately 60% of the economic benefit was used to demolish and re-construct settlements for peasants, while less than 25% was reserved for the development of rural industries. This distorted benefit allocation stemmed from the local governments’ pursuit of an increased quota for construction land use, which consequently generated weak impacts on restructuring rural life in Dongfan. Although their living conditions have improved, the outflow of peasants persists, thus producing a second round of village hollowing. The results of the policy indicate a need to pay more attention to rural industrial development in future programs and to examine the possibility for more radical land reforms in China, which could serve as a positive reference for village renewal and poverty alleviation in other countries.     

退耕还林制度下的林业经济增长影响因素分析——以江西省为例

林业经济的增长在江西省经济发展中具有举足轻重的地位,研究我国退耕还林制度下国家的投入、耕地和劳动力等资源的变动对林业经济增长的效应有一定的意义。采用江西省2000~2009年的退耕还林及林业生产要素的相关数据,运用统计分析方法和计量回归模型,探讨了江西耕地面积的变化、林业固定资产投入量、退耕还林专项资金、农林牧渔业劳动力数量、退耕还林面积等因素对林业经济增长的影响。提出了促进林业经济增长的政策建议。     

浙江渔业发展与可持续发展研究

浙江是我国重点渔业省份,其发展海洋渔业经济具有得天独厚的经济区位优势,浙江渔业在全国具有举足轻重的地位。论文在回顾浙江渔业发展的历史进程并总结浙江渔业发展取得的成绩与经验基础上,探讨了浙江渔业发展规律,提出浙江渔业可持续发展的战略选择。     

耕地保护补偿资金分配认知及其影响因素探究 ——基于全国563份地方国土管理人员①调查问卷的实证分析

研究目的:调查中国土地公有制和城乡二元特征影响下,地方国土管理人员对耕地保护补偿政策的认知,探索耕地保护补偿资金分配的影响因素。研究方法:基于对全国不同省市563份针对地方国土管理人员的问卷调查数据,结合已有文献和社会现实,采用描述性分析和因子分析法进行分析。研究结果:大部分地方国土管理人员认为耕地保护补偿资金分配应依据耕地面积、质量和区域特征,并认为耕地实际使用者和农村集体组织是最需要补偿的主体,更加注重分配可持续性与长效性。研究结论:耕地保护补偿资金分配与经济发展、耕地资源禀赋以及耕地保护情况密切相关,在补偿分配观念上的积极转变是提高补偿资金使用效率的重要措施之一。     

我国土地利用和管理形势政策研判

目前土地利用和管理的政策重点为:调结构、调过剩产能、完善城乡统筹中土地制度,严格保护耕地.针对资源供应的刚性影响逐步扩大,全社会的发展理念发生着深刻的变化,为提高资源利用效率、走节约集约道路提供了良好的外部环境.应该供需双向调节,加速结构调整、统筹城乡发展,促进城市转型,加快宜居城市建设、实施建立差别化供地政策、强化耕地建设性保护专项工作.对2011年来讲,促进经济发展方式转变,节约集约用地是关键,严格保护耕地是硬任务,应推动土地利用方式根本转变.促进经济发展方式转变和经济社会又好又快发展.     

农地发展权流出、资本回流与区域经济增长*——基于重庆市的实证研究

[目的]以重庆市为研究区域,以农地发展权资本化的地票指标为研究对象,从理论和实证层面探讨农地发展权交易与资本要素的城乡互动关系及其对区域经济增长的影响,为进一步优化农地发展权交易政策、促进区域均衡发展提供相关建议。[方法]基于2008—2017年城乡统筹改革试验区重庆市地票指标交易的面板数据,运用要素禀赋理论和差分GMM模型从理论和实证层面分析农地发展权流出区土地与资本要素的互动关系及其对区域经济增长的影响。[结果]基于区域间资源禀赋的差异及要素相对价格的分化,在市场机制作用下,农地发展权指标将以配置效率优化为导向在不同区域间自由流动。[结论]短期内,由于资本约束,流出农地发展权的区域其经济增长会受到抑制;而当农地发展权指标资本化后,流出区获得了较为稀缺的货币资本,农地发展权流出将显著促进地方经济增长;同时,在研究时期内,由于农地发展权市场交易机制的构建,重庆市地方经济增长存在显著的收敛效应,区域间经济发展差距将会逐步缩小。     

农地经营权流转价格扭曲的政府干预效应 ——基于边际价格理论的实证分析

研究目的：考察政府不同干预行为对农地经营权流转价格扭曲的影响效应,为完善农地生产要素配置及优化农地市场内外环境等提供政策建议。研究方法： Binary Logistic模型。研究结果：（1）当前农地经营权流转价格本应反映承包地利用产生的经济效益,由土地要素投入产出品的边际收益价值所决定;但受市场机制不完善、乡土伦理规范等多重影响,农地实际流转价格与要素价格间产生差异,表现为农地经营权流转价格扭曲。（2）政府不同的干预行为对农地经营权流转价格扭曲产生差异化效应。政府主导流转的直接干预模式会引起流转价格的高价扭曲,而通过构建流转交易平台、提供补贴等政策间接干预会缓解流转价格的低价扭曲。（3）对土地的经济诉求和保障诉求是造成流转价格扭曲的重要原因。研究结论：农地经营权流转价格的形成应交予市场,政府应避免直接干预造成价格的人为扭曲,可通过土地流转中介组织或补贴政策来间接培育优化农地市场交易环境。     

浙江省1996 — 2005年土地利用变化分析

研究目的：依据浙江省土地概查、土地详查、土地变更调查、土地更新调查成果，分析不同时段土地利用状况，构建浙江省1996 — 2005年“土地利用转移矩阵”，分析各种地类变化情况，为土地利用总体规划修编和实施“以图管地”新机制提供决策依据。研究方法：文献分析法，实证分析法。研究结论：1996 — 2005年，浙江省农业结构调整、生态退耕、农田基础设施建设累计占耕地减少面积的59.39%，城乡居民点及独立工矿、交通、水利等建设占用耕地占37.65%。浙江省优质耕地与快速城市化区域在空间分布上高度重合，必须科学地编制与实施省、市、县、乡4级土地利用总体规划，协调保护耕地与保障城乡建设用地需求间的关系，调控土地利用方向。     

Land use dynamics driven by rural industrialization and land finance in the peri-urban areas of China: “The examples of Jiangyin and Shunde”

As China experienced rapid economic growth, non-agricultural land, particularly industrial land, expanded significantly within its peri-urban areas. This paper takes two typical peri-urban areas: Jiangyin in the Yangtze River Delta and Shunde in the Pearl River Delta, as cases, and applies landscape ecology indices to analyze land use dynamics through overlay of their land use maps from 2001 to 2010. This research reveals that local cadres such as township governments and village collectives utilize land finance as a strategy to contest the reshuffling of central-local power brought about by the 1994 tax-sharing scheme. Meanwhile, under the stringent land quota system, local cadres allocated most quotas to the industrial sector in order to encourage economic growth. However, the fragmented governance regime, including county/city, township to administrative village and natural village, led to land fragmentation, which had adverse impacts on sustainable development. In general, the research on land use of peri-urban areas requires a comprehensive perspective of social, economic and institutional aspects.     

土地财政区域差异研究综述

[目的]进一步揭示土地财政已存在的区域差异规律,为构建更为科学、切实可行的政策建议,推动"征地→批租"地方政府土地财政模式转型提供新的研究视角。[方法]文献资料方法和比较研究方法。[结果]现有研究证实了土地财政规模及依赖程度、财政收入激励下地方政府土地出让方式、土地财政推动经济增长、土地财政影响居民收入消费及公共品供给、土地财政与城市用地规模联动关系等方面,在全国范围内都存在东部、中部、西部的区域差异。国外保有环节的房地产税是地方政府持续的财政资金来源;同时,是促进房地产市场有序发展、抑制城市蔓延的有效政策工具。[结论]未来研究方向是以地市为单元,探明各类土地财政构成要素对于经济增长、居民收入与消费及产业服务化、城市公共品供给、城市各类用地规模增长的影响内在机理;构建区域差别化的保有环节房地产税征收管理政策方案。     

Local interests or centralized targets? How China’s local government implements the farmland policy of Requisition–Compensation Balance

The Requisition–Compensation Balance of Farmland (RCBF) is a strict policy in China aimed at controlling farmland conversion and replenishing farmland loss caused by urban expansion through a set of top-down quotas. These conflict with local interests, since land conversion from agriculture to construction is a key tool by which local governments attract investment and raise fiscal revenue. How should local authorities respond to this centralized policy? This paper presents a framework “quantity–quality–productivity–environment” to investigate local governments’ coping strategy and the holistic performance of the RCBF. The empirical study indicated that local jurisdictions placed economic and financial growth first and continued expropriating farmland on a large-scale, including land of high quality, for development. However, impelled by compulsory quotas and supervision from governments at higher levels, local authorities would partly replenish the quantity loss through farmland exploitation, regardless of the quality of the new cropland and the possible environmental impact. Consequently, fast requisition and unqualified compensation undermined the capacity of regional agricultural output. We suggest that the RCBF is not capable of guaranteeing food security, whilst farmland supplementation threatens the local environment.     

土地利用规划的两难与双赢

城市化与工业化的进程加速了耕地数量的急剧减少,保护耕地与经济发展已成为一种矛盾,使我们处于两难的境地。通过研究日本和我国台湾省的经历,在土地利用规划的制定与修编过程中,把双赢的思想溶入战略思路以及规划内容中,以集约高效利用土地,发挥地区比较优势,加快产业结构调整,最终实现两难问题的双赢。     

农地流转区域差异及其成因分析 ——以江苏省为例

研究目的：分析农地流转发展的区域差异,以及这种差异的主要成因。研究方法：文献分析,计量经济分析。研究结果：（1）江苏省农地流转发展水平存在区域差异,苏南地区的农地流转比例最高,而苏北地区的农地流转增速最快,且已超过苏中地区的农地流转比例;（2）农地流转的区域差异是多种因素共同作用的结果,地区经济发展和农村劳动力非农就业都对农地流转具有显著的推动作用,鼓励和扶持农地流转的农村土地政策有效促进了农地流转的发展,农地产权安全性对农地流转的影响并不显著,而紧张的农村人地关系和与种植面积（承包面积）挂钩的农业补贴政策对农地流转具有一定的阻碍作用。研究结论：为了进一步促进农地流转和实现农业适度规模经营,应该因地制宜引导农村劳动力非农转移,完善农业补贴制度,并逐步探索农地流转专项补贴。     

基于AHP的中国碳交易价格影响因素评价

碳交易作为一种全新的交易,在我国发展迅速。目前我国以清洁发展机制为主要的交易项目,是全球碳交易市场最大的排放权输出国。然而我国碳交易的价格持续走低,远远低于国际碳交易的价格,使得交易利润被大幅度压缩,阻碍了我国碳交易的顺利发展。运用层次分析法,从市场、技术、生态、政策管理四个方面,选取对中国碳交易价格有影响的19个主要因素进行分析和评价,确定各个因素的影响权重,从而找出影响我国碳交易价格的最主要因素,得出排在前五位的影响因素分别是欧盟配额数量、各国的实际排放量、国际制度的变化、交易成本和碳信用的认证标准。根据碳交易价格的主要影响因素提出对策,促进我国碳交易的进一步发展,完善我国碳交易市场。     

Monitoring cropland transition and its impact on ecosystem services value in developed regions of China: A case study of Jiangsu Province

Cropland use is experiencing an intense transition in both depth and breadth with rapid development of the Chinese economy. Unwarranted land use transitions can affect the ecosystem services value (ESV) and ecosystem functions significantly. This paper reports the dynamic patterns of cropland transition (CLT) and its impact on ESV in Jiangsu Province based on land-use data from 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2013, crop yield data, empirical data related to ESV, some revisions adapted to the situation of Jiangsu, and Geo-information Tupu methods. Jiangsu has experienced rapid economic growth and urbanization, which can be seen as a microcosm of China's development. Results showed that the total area of cropland decreased markedly from 1990 to 2013. This loss of cropland took place mainly through the expansion of construction land and water area, accounting for 83.78% and 13.71%, respectively. The gain in cropland came mainly from construction land, water area, grassland, and woodland, accounting for 58.92%, 19.92%, 11.46%, and 10.22%. The transitions from 2000 to 2010 were much more significant than during 1990–2000 and 2010–2013. CLTs were accompanied by relatively concentrated distributions near towns and cities and the distributions in southern and central Jiangsu were more than in northern Jiangsu. Between 1990 and 2013, CLTs gave rise to a decrease of 6.78 million US$ ESV that was mostly caused by the transition from cropland to construction land and water area to cropland. Based on this information, some of the major implications for improving the land use policy and ecological protection policy in China were discussed. These include increased emphasis on land quality and ecological environment in balance between cropland addition and conversion, introducing ESV measures to evaluate the ecological effect of land-use planning, and establish an all-around ecological compensation mechanism.     

Farmland transition in China and its policy implications

China’s land use structure is closely related to its economic development. Based on the theoretical analysis framework of China’s farmland transition (FT), this paper establishes an evaluation index system for quantifying FT from two dimensions, the dominant transition and recessive transition, and uses K-means clustering to quantitatively divide the phases of FT in China over the past four decades. The results show that the FT in China has experienced several phases from slow transition, rapid transition, to steady transition and innovation transition, and demonstrates clear regional differences. The dominant transition phase, social and ecological farmland transition, mainly occurred during 2000–2010. The economic farmland transition occurred earlier, during 1990–2000. Spatially, the economic farmland transition gradually shifted from the southeast coastal area to the inland. The “structure-function” transition of China’s farmland in the past four decades can be divided into four phases: the preliminary exploration and development phase, the steady development and expansion phase, the market-oriented reform and deepening phase, and the reform and innovation phase. Finally, relevant policy implications and suggestions were proposed for the optimal management and regulation of farmland according to the characteristics of FT, its challenges and people’s new demand for farmland functions.