Hinterland operations of sea ports do matter: Dry port usage effects on transportation costs and CO2 emissions

Decreasing carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions is one of the most important tasks for the society in the 21st century. One possibility to decrease emissions originating from transportation is to utilize more rails instead of relying simply on road transportation. In the dry port concept an inland intermodal terminal is connected to a sea port using railways. This study analyzes impacts of dry ports in a Finnish context. We compare two different configurations: In the first one shippers drive directly to a sea port, while in the second one they use dry ports. The systems are evaluated by using discrete-event simulation. In the systems we are interested in two issues: (1) Level of CO₂ emissions, and (2) Costs to transport the goods in different configurations. We use different scenarios for future energy prices and estimate both the costs and CO₂ emission development in these scenarios. We also compare the results to a situation, where emissions are minimized instead of costs. Implications on larger scale are also discussed, for example in the Baltic Sea and North Sea area, where strict sulfur emission restrictions are seen to harm sea transport and increase concentration on small number of sea ports.     

CO2 emissions associated with hubbing activities in air transport: an international comparison

Hubbing is an important operational practice in air transport. Many studies have been conducted to examine the benefits and impacts of hubbing from an economic perspective. However, its impact on CO₂ emissions, especially across different air spaces, is not well understood. This paper explores the impact of hubbing activities in air transport from an environmental perspective. With a detailed methodology and data from the Greek and Hong Kong/Sanya flight information regions (FIRs), three levels of CO₂ emissions are estimated: airport-based, airspace-based and flight-based. After contrasting the CO₂ emission efficiencies of Athens International Airport (AIA) and the Hong Kong International Airport (HKIA), aircraft type and flight distance are examined to explain their emission efficiency differences. It is found that HKIA is associated with poorer CO₂ emission efficiency at the airport and airspace levels because of the larger aircraft and longer flight distance. However, when CO₂ emission efficiency at the flight level is considered, HKIA, with a higher passenger load factor, performs better. Major international hub airports should implement additional environmental measures to minimize the impact of hubbing activities on CO₂ emissions at the airport and airspace levels.     

Life-cycle CO2 emissions and influential factors for asphalt highway construction and maintenance activities in China

This study tried to clarify the magnitude of CO₂ emissions from highway construction and maintenance in China through life cycle assessment (LCA) method. For this, 227 real highway projects constructed from the year 2000 to 2011 in Zhejiang Province, China are classified into six types by two categories of N road (62 projects without grand bridge, great bridge and tunnel) and Y road (165 projects with the same road structures) and three sub-categories of (i) newly constructed road, (ii) replacing pavement road and (iii) full rehabilitated road. Significant influential factors of LCA results were revealed through multivariate linear regression models, combined with data quality assessment and sensitivity analysis. Numerical interval of assessment results indicate that the construction emissions of N highway project are more centralized to no more than 2900 t/lane-km, while Y project have a normal upper boundary of construction CO₂ emissions, about 5000 t/lane-km. The contribution of maintenance to CO₂ emissions probably could exceed that of newly construction both for Y project and N project. In addition, the pavement replacing and rehabilitation could bring about large amount of CO₂ emissions which even match with the CO₂ emissions from cumulative traffic volume during highway's life cycle. There are common factors for six categories. Cement and steel are the top largest CO₂ emissions contributors and sensitive factors for N road and Y road. The LCA results are not sensitive to the local construction materials but sensitive to the emission factor of diesel used in transportation and on-site construction.     

Assessment of transport emissions impact and the associated social cost for Chengdu,China

Chengdu, the capital city of Sichuan province, is the fourth biggest city in China with over 15 million residents and 3.4 million vehicles. In Chengdu, transport and other mobile sources accounted for over 27% of the city's PM_2.5 emissions (CDEPB, 2016), posing negative impacts on public health, local environment, and the climate. This study estimated impacts from transport-related emissions (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, PM₁₀, PM_2.5, NO_X, SO_X, CO, and HC) and evaluated the associated social cost for Chengdu from 2005 to 2013. The study also assessed the city's transport performance in terms of its eco-efficiency with the socioeconomic and environmental concerns. The activity-based methodology was adopted to produce the emission inventories, while utilizing meta-analysis and localizing the emission social cost factors based on Chengdu's economic and demographic reality to support social cost assessment. The study marks the first attempt in literature to evaluate Chengdu's transport emission social cost. The following were observed in the study: (i) in 2013, the social cost of all transport emissions in Chengdu was around US$3 billion, with the lowest estimate of US$449 million and the highest estimate of US$4.7 billion; (ii) trucks, private cars, and motorcycles were the major contributors, while NO_X, PM_2.5, and CO were the key pollutants to public health; (iii) if GHGs (CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O) were excluded, the upper range of social cost of transport air pollutants would be from US$2.4 billion to US$4.1 billion, or 1.6%–2.8% of the Chengdu's GDP.     

Towards a theory of decoupling: degrees of decoupling in the EU and the case of road traffic in Finland between 1970 and 2001

Traditionally, the transport literature reflects the view that traffic volumes, road traffic volumes in particular, are coupled with Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Recently published literature also argues that the carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from transport, passenger cars in particular, have not shown any decoupling from transport volumes for some years. This article presents a theoretical framework for decoupling, defining the difference between decoupling, coupling and negative decoupling. These are further broken down to weak, strong and expansive/recessive degrees of decoupling, laying emphasis on the absolute increase or decrease of the variables. The result section presents data of the development of the relationships between GDP, traffic volumes and CO₂ emissions from transport in the EU15 countries between 1970 and 2001, including the special case of Finnish road traffic. The aggregate EU15 data show a change from expansive negative decoupling to expansive coupling regarding passenger transport, and from weak decoupling to expansive negative decoupling regarding freight transport. Weak decoupling of transport CO₂ emissions from GDP could also be observed. Weak decoupling of all the three aspects (freight, passenger and CO₂) could be seen in the UK, Sweden and Finland in the 1990s. In Finland, the statistics show weak decoupling of GDP from road traffic volume and strong decoupling of road traffic volume and CO₂ emissions from road traffic between 1990 and 2001. Four hypothetical explanations of the Finnish phenomenon are put forward in this article: policy towards sustainable mobility, green urban lifestyle, increasing income differences, and statistical misinterpretation. Each explanation is backed up with some quantitative evidence in observable trends in Finland during the 1990s.     

Carbon dioxide emissions and inland container transport in Taiwan

The aim of this study is to estimate the carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from inland container transport during the time period of 1998-2008 and predicts the trend of these emissions. The analyses show that the CO₂ emission from inland container transport in 1992 reached 1.03 million tonnes, and the figure drastically increased by 89.3% to 1.95 million tonnes in 2008. Using a multiple regression model, gross domestic product (GDP) and oil price are found to be the key drivers for CO₂ emission. The CO₂ mitigation strategies are discussed in the policy suggestions given that Taiwan is warming at twice global average rate.     

Transitions to low carbon transport futures: strategic conversations from London and Delhi

Climate change is a global problem and across the world there are major difficulties being experienced in reducing carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. The transport sector in particular is finding it difficult to reduce CO₂ emissions. This paper reports on two studies carried out by the authors in London (UK) and Delhi (India). It considers the common objectives for transport CO₂ reduction, but the very different contexts and baselines, potentials for change, and some possible synergies.Different packages of measures are selected and scenarios developed for each context which are consistent with contraction and convergence objectives. CO₂ reduction potentials are modelled and quantified by package and scenario. London is considering deep reductions on current transport CO₂ emission levels; Delhi is seeking to break the huge projected rise in transport CO₂ emissions.The scale of policy intervention required to achieve these goals is huge and there is certainly little public discussion of the magnitude of the changes required. The paper argues for a ‘strategic conversation’ at the city level, using scenario analysis, to discuss the priorities for intervention in delivering low carbon transport futures. A greater focus is required in developing participatory approaches to decision making, alongside network investments, urban planning, low emission vehicles and wider initiatives. Aspirations towards equitable target emissions may assist in setting sufficiently demanding targets. Only then is a wider awareness and ownership of potential carbon efficient transport futures likely to take place.     

Including aviation in the European emissions trading scheme: Impacts on the industry,CO2 emissions and macroeconomic activity in the EU

In July 2008, motivated by the expected high growth of aviation and the related impacts on climate change, the European Parliament adopted a directive to include airlines in the European Emissions Trading Scheme. This paper discusses possible impacts of this inclusion on the aviation industry in terms of CO₂ emissions and the macroeconomic activity in the EU. The analysis uses the Energy–Environment–Economy Model for Europe, a dynamic simulation model to investigate impacts of the European Emissions Trading Scheme on air transport. The impacts on air transport output and the macroeconomic effects are estimated to be small. This was robust to varying the carbon price. However, air transport CO₂ emissions were expected to decrease by up to 7.4%, which is more than that estimated previously and stems mainly from the supply-side reaction of the industry.     

UK supply chain carbon mitigation strategies using alternative ports and multimodal freight transport operations

In the last few decades, the building evidence that CO₂e emissions lead to climate change has pointed to a need to reduce CO₂e emissions. This research uses five scenarios in the context of UK import trade to assess total CO₂e emissions and costs of import re-routing containers. The overall objective is to assess possible carbon mitigation strategies for UK supply chains by using a combination of alternative ports and revised multimodal strategies. The model adopted includes three elements: port expansion, container handling and freight transport. The alternative scenarios explore different settings modal shift and short sea shipping.     

Emissions trading for international aviation—an estimation of the economic impact on selected European airlines

International aviation is responsible for between 2.5% and 3% of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions that are partly held responsible for climate change. International aviation is not subject to any regulatory framework for the limitation of these emissions. From an economic point of view, the introduction of an emissions trading scheme would be an appropriate instrument to limit these emissions. This paper outlines the possibilities on how aviation could be included in existing emissions trading schemes and gives an overview on the current political discussion. It continues with an empirical estimation of the impacts on operating costs and transport demand for low cost, full service, holiday and regional airlines taking Ryanair, Lufthansa, Condor and Air Dolomiti as examples, under three different design options for an emissions trading scheme. Finally, conclusions about the impacts on intra-European and worldwide airline competition are drawn.     

Dynamic linkages between tourism transportation expenditures,carbon dioxide emission,energy consumption and growth factors: evidence from the transition economies

Tourism transport profoundly affects economic growth, energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. This study is an attempt to examine the impact of international tourism transportation expenditures, energy demand, foreign direct investment inflows, trade openness and urban population on carbon dioxide emission and per capita income for the panel of 11 transition Economies, over the period of 1995–2013. The results show that per capita income escalates the carbon dioxide emission (CO₂), which deteriorates the natural environment. International tourism receipts and international tourism expenditures for travel items are associated with the intensifying CO₂ emission and per capita income in the region. The study confirmed the energy-led emissions, FDI-led emissions, FDI-led growth, income-led emissions, income-led energy demand, trade-led growth and trade-led energy demand. The causality results further substantiate the the tourism-led growth and FDI hypothesis in the region. Finally, the variance decomposition analysis confirmed the following results, that is, (i) per capita income is the contributor that least influences CO₂ emissions, (ii) urban population influences per capita income and (iii) international tourism transportation expenditures will influence CO₂ emissions and per capita income for the next 10-year period.     

An analysis of the greenhouse gas emissions profile of airlines flying the Australian international market

International commercial flights (with the exception of flights between countries in European Union including Iceland, Norway and Liechtenstein) are currently not subject to greenhouse gas emission reduction regulation. To formulate effective and efficiency policy to manage greenhouse gas emissions from air transport, policy makers need to determine the emissions profiles of all airlines currently flying into their country or region. In this paper, we use 2012 data on airlines' aircraft characteristics, passenger load and cargo load (obtained from statistics reported by Australian Government Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics) to estimate the volume and carbon efficiency on each international route flying to and from Australia. This is the first study to use actual passenger and cargo load data to determine the greenhouse gas (specifically CO₂) efficiency of airlines operating in the Australian international aviation market. Airlines' CO₂ emission profile is dependent on many factors including but not limited to the aircraft used, payload, route taken, weather conditions. Our results reveal that the airlines’ CO₂ emission profile is not only dependent on the aircraft used and the number of passengers but also the amount of cargo on each flight.     

A transport carbon footprint methodology to assess airport carbon emissions

Airports are important nodes in the air transport system, but also local sources of environmental impacts. Emissions of CO₂ are among the most relevant ones because of their potential greenhouse effects. Many policies and guidelines have been identified at national and world level to reduce such kind of impacts. In this paper, a Transport Carbon Footprint methodology has been set to identify Unit Carbon Footprints (UCFs) linked to some identified emission macro-sources – i.e., land vehicles, on-ground aircraft, airport handling and terminal equipment – to compute the contribution of the single macro-source to the total amount of CO₂. Particularly, UCFs due to transport activities have been defined according to some relevant transport variables. The computation of UCF values for a given airport allows computing both the contribution of each macro-source and also evaluating the effectiveness of transport-related actions aiming at reducing the carbon impact. The methodology has been applied to the airport of Bologna, in Northern Italy, and its UCF values for the identified macro-sources have been computed.     

Profiling road transport activity: Emissions from 2000 to 2005 in Ireland using national car test data

This work describes a methodology for determining the average vehicle kilometres travelled by the private national car fleet in Ireland and estimating the disaggregated CO₂ and NO_x emissions from private vehicles in the Irish road transport sector for the period 2000–2005 using national car test records. The developed methodology facilitates the calculation of greatly improved estimates for vehicle kilometres under a range of constraint variables and thereby enables the disaggregated analysis of specific vehicle fleet groups and their associated activity patterns to support evidence-based policy development. The results indicate that while older vehicles are contributing significantly to car NO_x emissions; newer cars produce a higher share of CO₂ emissions than older cars in the vehicle fleet.     

Green accessibility: Estimating the environmental costs of network-time prisms for sustainable transportation planning

Accessibility, or the ease to participate in activities and obtain resources in a given environment, is crucial for evaluating transportation systems. Greater accessibility is often achieved by increasing individuals' potential mobility. However, potential mobility, if realized by motorized modes, can also generate negative environmental impacts such as fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. While the negative environmental impacts of greater mobility are acknowledged, there has been a lack of research to validate those impacts using empirical data, especially considering variations in individuals' mobility levels. This paper presents a method for estimating the expected environmental costs of accessibility represented by a network-time prism (NTP). A NTP delimits all accessible locations within a network and the available time for an individual to present at each location given a scheduled trip origin and destination, a time budget and the maximum achievable speeds along network edges. Estimating the expected environmental costs of a NTP involves three steps: (1) semi-Markov techniques to simulate the probabilities to move along network edges at given times; (2) the speed profiles for reachable edges, and (3) a cost function that translates speeds into environmental impacts. We focus on air quality and employ the motor vehicle emission simulator MOVESLite to estimate the CO₂ emissions at both the edge and prism levels. We calibrate and validate the methods for experimental NTPs defined within the Phoenix, AZ, USA road and highway network using vehicles instrumented with GPS-enabled onboard diagnostic devices (OBD). We demonstrate the effectiveness of our method through two scenarios and investigate the impact of changes in mobility levels on the expected CO₂ emissions associated with the experimental NTPs.     

A Scottish east coast European ferry service: review of the issues

Peripheral regions and nations within the EU generally enjoy a balanced mix of transport alternatives for access to the Continent's economic centre. Unique among peripheral regions and nations in Northern Europe, Scotland has no direct ferry service to the Continent and relies for access on ferry services from remote seaports, resulting in a greater relative dependence on land transport, particularly road. The evidence presented in this paper suggests that Scotland does not enjoy direct ferry access with the Continent due to any geographic or economic reason, rather the explanation is more to do with technological obsolescence of existing seaport infrastructure coupled with the lack of sufficient Government initiative to help promote direct links. Ultimately, a direct ferry service could help reduce the effects of peripherality and bring about further integration. It would also spread increasing transport demand across modes.     

Responsive relationship between energy-related carbon dioxide emissions from the transportation sector and economic growth in Beijing—Based on decoupling theory

Decoupling theory is effective to analyze the interdependence between variables and has been applied in environmental economics. However, most of the previous literature focus on “decoupling” and “recoupling” analysis, while rarely consider their driving factors. This study aims to explore the relationship between transportation CO₂ emissions and economic growth in Beijing from 1995 to 2014 by an extended Tapio elastic analysis, considering the contribution from industrial emission reduction, industrial energy saving, industrial operating efficiency, and industrial development. The entire decoupling state between transportation CO₂ emissions and economic growth changed with time. From 1995 to 2005, the decoupling relationship between transportation CO₂ emissions and economic growth exhibits a fluctuation among expansive negative decoupling, weak decoupling, and expansive coupling. Since decoupling elasticity values among industrial energy saving, industrial operating efficiency and industrial development were variably large and neutralized with each other, interaction of these decoupling elasticities may explain the fluctuation of the entire decoupling effect during this period. During the period from 2006 to 2008, the negative impact of industrial energy-saving elasticity overtook the positive one from industrial operating efficiency elasticity, which leads to worsening in the decoupling state between transportation CO₂ emissions and economic growth. The decoupling state was improved from expansive negative decoupling to weak decoupling after 2008, which can be attributed to policy-oriented practices supporting energy conservation.     

Urban bus fleet-to-route assignment for pollutant emissions minimization

This study proposes a methodology to optimize the assignment of an urban bus fleet to a set of fixed routes, taking into account the differences among routes and the differences among vehicle types and propulsion technologies in order to reduce pollutant emissions (CO₂, CO, THC, NO_x and PM). A Mixed Integer Linear Programming optimization model is stated and two scenarios are assessed: minimization of CO₂ and NO_x. The results show that it is feasible to obtain a fleet distribution in which emissions for any given pollutant are reduced without increase in emissions of other pollutants.     

Transport and climate change: Simulating the options for carbon reduction in London

Transport is a major user of carbon-based fuels, and it is increasingly being highlighted as the sector which contributes least to CO₂ emission reduction targets. This paper reports on the findings of the VIBAT London study (www.vibat.org) which considers the role of the transport sector in reducing CO₂ emissions in London.The analysis develops a transport and carbon simulation model (TC-SIM) for London. Within this, users are able to consider the implementation of a series of potential policy packages—low emission vehicles, alternative fuels, pricing regimes, public transport, walking and cycling, strategic and local urban planning, information and communication technologies, smarter choices, ecological driving and slower speeds, long distance travel substitution, freight transport and international air. They can select variable levels of application to help achieve headline CO₂ emission reduction targets. The roles of carbon rationing and oil prices are also considered. TC-SIM can be played in different user modes: as ‘free riders’, ‘techno-optimists’, ‘enviro-optimists’, ‘complacent car addicts’ and other typical travel market segments, including a ‘free role’. Game playing or scenario testing such as this helps to highlight perceived levels of homogeneity of views within certain cohorts, the development of entrenched positions and the likely success in achieving objectives.The paper develops various policy packages, scenarios and pathways aimed at reducing transport CO₂ emissions. It argues that strategic CO₂ emission reduction targets are very ambitious relative to current progress, and that we need to act more effectively across a wide range of policy mechanisms, with a ‘high intensity application’ of many of the options, to get near to achieving these targets. A critical issue here will be in communicating and gaining greater ‘ownership’ of future lifestyle choices with stakeholders and the public, and participation tools such as TC-SIM could become increasingly important in this area.     

Regional disparity analysis of Chinese freight transport CO2 emissions from 1990 to 2007: Driving forces and policy challenges

Freight transportation and logistics act as the artery of the national economy. With a booming economy, China's freight transport sector has experienced dramatic growth in recent decades and has become a key driving force of China's CO₂ emissions. Therefore, effective and efficient mitigation policies in the freight transport sector are critical for China to promote CO₂ emission mitigation strategies. In contrast to other countries, China's challenge stems not only from technical issues but also from regional socioeconomic disparities, which in turn require the implementation of locally oriented policies. For this reason, an analysis based on regional disparity is of vital importance for future policy making. However, to date, there have been few pertinent studies on the freight transportation sector. To fill this gap, this paper aims to conduct an in-depth comparative study of CO₂ emission characteristics and the driving forces in the freight transport sector in China's three regions (covering 31 provinces) from 1990 to 2007. The log mean Divisia index method (LMDI) is employed to analyse the driving forces, and the Gini coefficient is used to investigate regional inequity. Additionally, regional disparity is explored in-depth based on the analytical results and practical concerns. The results highlight that economic structure is a key driving force for emissions change and reveal significant regional disparity and inequity in freight transport emissions. The results are critical for future policy-making to address regional concerns.