The institutional determinants of private equity involvement in business groups—The case of Africa

This study examines the governance attributes of post-IPO (initial public offering) retained ownership of private equity in business group constituent firms in contrast to their unaffiliated counterparts, in 202 newly listed firms in 22 emerging African economies. We adopt an actor centered institutional-theoretic perspective in rationalizing institutional voids and the advantages of maintained governance by both business angels (BA) and venture capital (VC) private equity. Our findings reveal private equity retain higher post-IPO ownership in business group constituents compared to unaffiliated firms and that this is inversely moderated in the context of improving institutional quality – where this is particularly strong in case of foreign VC as opposed to domestic VC or BA. Our result adds to the literature on multifocal corporate governance mechanisms and the institutional determinants of private equity investment.     

Factors influencing the choice between founder versus non-founder CEOs for IPO firms

Despite the innate advantage founder CEOs have by virtue of their founding vision, organizational influence, positive image, and ownership stakes to lead their firms at their initial public offering (IPO), extant empirical evidence indicates that between a third to half of IPO firms go public with non-founder CEOs at the helm. Relatively little however, is known regarding factors that influence the choice of founder versus non-founder CEO for firms issuing IPOs. This study examines the impact of factors such as founder characteristics, size of founding team, governance structure, ownership structure, top management team independence, venture capitalist influence, and the demand for equity financing on the probability of founder CEO at IPO.     

Institutional Ownership and Private Equity Placements: Evidence from Chinese Listed Firms

This paper examines the impact of institutional ownership on the performance of private equity placements (PEPs) for listed firms in China. We find that the presence of institutional investors can alleviate the information asymmetries between listed firms and the market. The market reaction to PEP announcements is significantly smaller if there is a higher portion of institutional shareholdings. Long‐term firm operational performance after PEPs is positively correlated with institutional shareholdings. Moreover, we find that the relationship between institutional shareholdings and PEP performance is mainly driven by nonlisted corporate investors and mutual funds. Finally, the relationship between PEP performance and institutional shareholdings is stronger in smaller PEP issuers.     

Venture Capitalists, Syndication and Governance in Initial Public Offerings

This paper examines the development of effective boards in venture capital (VC)-backed initial public offerings. It argues that VC-backed IPOs suffer from two sets of agency costs which are related to principal–agent and principal–principal relationships between the founders and members of the VC syndicate. Using a unique sample of 293 entrepreneurial IPOs in the UK it shows that VC syndicates invest in relatively more risky firms. VC-backed IPOs have more independent boards than IPOs with no VC involvement, with board independence being higher in syndicated VC-backed firms. These results are consistent with assumption that these governance factors are used to mitigate agency costs associated with VC involvement in IPO firms. We also find that in syndicated IPOs there is a higher equity presence of passive private equity firms investing alongside VC firms.     

Top executive compensation,regional institutions and Chinese OFDI

Integrating agency and institutional theories, this paper examines the impact of top-executive compensation and regional institutions on the outward FDI(OFDI) of a sample of Chinese-listed firms. The results show that top-executive cash pay and equity ownership have a positive association with OFDI. Differing from previous studies focusing on cross-country institutional variances, we take variations in within-country institutions into account and find that regional institutions in terms of product markets, factor markets and legal systems play an important role in OFDI and positively moderate the governance role of managerial equity ownership.     

Equity-based entry modes of emerging country multinationals: Lessons from Turkey

Based on a sample of 522 foreign affiliates of Turkish multinational enterprises (MNEs) with varying levels of Turkish equity ownership, this study provides an empirical analysis of the determinants of equity-based entry mode strategies in host country markets. A number of hypotheses are developed to examine the impact of institutional, transaction specific and firm level variables on Turkish MNEs’ choice of equity ownership mode in their foreign affiliates. The results reveal that institutional variables are important in explaining the equity composition of foreign affiliates of Turkish MNEs. Particularly important in determining equity ownership mode were found to be political constraints, linguistic distance, knowledge infrastructure and the extent of parent diversity. Results concerning the influences of the size of the affiliate are contrary to expectations and contradict the findings of previous research. No support was found for the impact of cultural distance on the equity ownership mode of Turkish MNEs in their foreign affiliates. Apart from political constraints, equity ownership choice and its underlying determinants do not vary between emerging and developed host country markets.     

The Effects of CEO Founder Status and Stock Ownership on Entrepreneurial Orientation in Small Firms

This paper studies how governance drives entrepreneurial orientation (EO) in small firms. We argue that founder status and ownership create powerful personal incentives for small firm CEOs to engage in behaviors that influence EO. Integrating stewardship theory and the principal‐principal branch of agency theory, we test our hypotheses on a sample of 339 Swedish firms, and find that CEO founder status is significantly and positively associated with EO, while CEO stock ownership significantly but negatively predicts EO. We additionally test two boundary conditions that show that the founder‐CEO's prior managerial experience in start‐up firms positively moderates the founder‐EO relationship, while contrary to expectations, CEO ownership diversification has no effect on the negative association between ownership and EO. Thus, our study adopts a corporate governance perspective to explain how variations in EO across small firms are driven by the goals and motivations of its leader. Our research also shows that in small, private firms the balance of power is tipped in favor of the CEO rather than the board of directors. Finally, we underline the importance of adopting alternative theoretical lens like stewardship and principal‐principal agency, given that traditional principal‐agent problems are largely mitigated in the small firm context.     

证券市场选择是否影响公司业绩与价值?--来自中国房地产行业的经验证据

企业在不同资本市场之间的选择往往是上市过程中一个重要决策。上市地点是否会影响其后续业绩表现以及价值？文章基于中国内地房地产企业数据的研究发现,在中国香港上市的企业比在中国内地上市的企业经营业绩更优,而两者在股市价值上并无显著差别。另外,在(中国)香港上市的房地产企业中,国有企业股市价值低于非国有企业;而在中国内地上市的房地产企业中,国有企业股市价值高于非国有企业。研究结果说明,证券市场完善的监管有利于降低代理人问题,提高企业经营业绩。     

Board composition,family ownership,institutional distance and the foreign equity ownership strategies of Turkish MNEs

In much of the developing world, families represent the dominant form of firm ownership. This study investigates how this influences equity ownership strategies when firms venture abroad. Drawing on agency theory and institutional theory, we investigate the direct effect of board composition and family ownership on the equity-based ownership strategies of multinational enterprises (MNEs) in their affiliates, and how institutional distance may moderate this. Examining foreign affiliates of listed Turkish MNEs, we find that a high ratio of independent directors is negatively linked to levels of equity ownership of MNE affiliates. We also find that a high ratio of inside directors on the board is positively associated with the equity stake of MNEs in their affiliates. The significant interaction effect between board composition, family ownership and institutional distance helps explain the unexpectedly weak effects of institutional distance.     

Can Spending Time in the Minors Pay Off? An Examination of the Canadian Junior Public Equity Markets

This paper tests whether the junior public equity markets serve as an effective development market for early‐stage firms compared to private venture capital (VC). Focusing on the Canadian market, we compare the long‐run stock performance of firms that graduate from the Toronto Venture Stock Exchange (TSX‐V) to the Toronto Stock Exchange (TSX) against the performance of VC‐backed firms that have a direct IPO on the TSX. Controlling for various confounders and possible selection biases, we find that TSX‐V graduations significantly outperform VC‐backed IPOs by 28.2 percentage points in the three years following the TSX listing. Our results are consistent with the idea that a TSX‐V listing provides the insiders of early‐stage companies with valuable public‐markets experience.     

The Practice of Mining and Inclusive Wealth Development in Developing Countries

This study uses the institutional perspective to examine the interaction effects between the subnational institutional context and firm-level parameters on corporate environmental behaviors, based on a unique cross-sectional data set of private firms compiled from three different sources in China. Our results suggest that both enforcement stringency of environmental regulations at the provincial-level and private firms’ foreign ownership negatively affect compensation fees, which are levies charged for firms’ emissions. Enforcement stringency also moderates the firm-level relationship between foreign ownership and compensation fees, but such a cross-level moderating effect holds only for private firms with non-HMT (Hong Kong, Macau, or Taiwan) investments.     

Private equity exits in emerging markets

Using deal level data from 2733 private equity (PE) deals from 35 emerging markets, we find that PE fund managers have a higher probability of successful exits in countries with better business and legal environments. We also find that they are able to mitigate the potential costs associated with inefficient and corrupt business environments to increase the probability of exits by IPOs in countries with higher levels of corruption. Moreover, we find that market shocks in the developed markets result in a negative ripple effect as the probability of successful exits, especially by way of IPOs, decreases in emerging markets.     

Does Geographic Proximity Change the Passiveness of Equity Ownership by Bank Trust?

We provide evidence that while concentrated bank trust ownership is passive with distant firms, it is nonpassive with local firms and reduce their risk‐taking. Concentrated local bank trust ownership is associated with (i) lower future firm equity beta and (ii) less uncertain corporate policies. The results cannot be explained by private information alone, are not driven by local bank trusts as a mixed debt‐equity holder, and are robust to various tests for endogeneity. We also explore channels through which local bank trusts could exert their influence, including their stabilizing function during crisis periods and joining force with local independent directors.     

Ownership structure and earnings management in emerging markets—An institutionalized agency perspective

Previous earnings management research has largely focused on firm-level governance mechanisms in single countries or on macro-level variables in multiple countries. Building on this research, we incorporate firm ownership predictors along with national institutional dimensions to explore why firm decision makers in emerging markets vary in their earnings management behavior. Our theoretical framework integrates agency and institutional theories proposing that firm-level ownership mechanisms do not function in isolation, but are reinforced or attenuated by elements of the institutional governance environment. The multilevel empirical analysis of 1200 firms in 24 emerging markets indicates that controlling ownership is positively related to earnings management. We find that the level of minority shareholder protection in a country weakens this positive relationship. We also find that regulatory quality strengthens the negative relationship between institutional ownership and earnings management activity. It is hoped that awareness of how firm ownership structures interact with national-level institutions in affecting firm-level behavior will help managers and investors develop skills and practices to better cope with business norms in emerging economies.     

Corporate governance,globalization and firm productivity

We examine the relationship between globalization, corporate governance and firm productivity. The results, using longitudinal data from Korea, indicate that the positive effect of liberalising equity ownership on firms’ total factor productivity (TFP) was reinforced by indirect managerial effects when a firm improved its corporate governance. Our findings also confirm that the interaction of the managerial effect with increased foreign equity ownership is more significant than interaction with exports, suggesting that liberalising foreign investment in the host market is more effective in capitalising on the potential benefits of corporate governance reform than increasing exports to overseas markets, reflected in learning by exporting.     

审计师选择、留存股权和盈余披露——中国IPO公司价值信号传递机制研究

公司通过权衡信号成本与信息收益,选择一种或多种市场信号,包括审计师选择、留存股权和盈余披露等。各信号间的内生性问题是本文的研究重点。我们以2000—2002年中国155家IPO公司为研究样本,通过构建联立方程系统实证,发现：我国IPO市场审计师选择、盈余预测与留存股权并非替代信号,风险越大公司越倾向保留较低股权;盈利预测对股权留存并没有显著影响;审计收费对公司审计师选择具有显著影响,但审计风险对审计收费的影响并不明显。     

Do Private Equity Investors Create Value for Italian Initial Public Offerings?

This study analyses the role of private equity (PE) backing in initial public offerings (IPOs) using a dataset of 227 companies that went public on the Milan Stock Exchange between January 1995 and December 2007. The evidence rejects the certification and monitoring hypotheses and provides considerable support for the market power hypothesis. In accordance with Chemmanur and Loutskina (2006) , we suggest that PE investors exploit their relationships with the key IPO market players to attract attention to the IPOs of firms backed by PE, thus obtaining a higher equity valuation (both in the IPO and in the secondary market).     

FDI expansion speed of state-owned enterprises and the moderating role of market capitalism: Evidence from China

Drawing on an institutional logics perspective and isomorphism viewpoint, we posit that the negative impact of state ownership on the speed of foreign direct investment (FDI) expansion is attributed to the state socialism logic, which is inconsistent with market-oriented mechanisms that underpin rapid international expansion. We further argue that firms associated with the market capitalism logic shape an institutional context in which state-owned enterprises (SOEs) may adjust their behaviors by adopting market-oriented practices to expand quickly in the global market. Using outward FDI project information from Chinese listed firms over a fourteen-year period, we find evidence that confirms our theoretical predictions. Our analysis shows that, despite the negative relationship between state ownership and the speed of an SOE’s FDI expansion, both the non-state economy in the firm’s subnational region and privately owned enterprises in its industry sector positively moderate this relationship. This study enriches our understanding of institutional complexity in emerging markets and internationalization of emerging-market firms.     

Going public: The impact of insiders' holdings on the price of initial public offerings

Many entrepreneurs dream of seeing their company's securities trading in the public marketplace. Although going public has many benefits for a firm's founders and insiders, the process is often confusing and intimidating. One of the questions that investment bankers are asked frequently by insiders is, “What determines the price of a stock in the initial public offering?” This article presents empirical evidence that the stock price in an initial public offering (IPO) is directly related to the percentage of the firm's equity retained by the insiders. In other words, the offering price is relatively high when it appears that the insiders are not “bailing out” when the firm goes public.This research investigates equity ownership structure as a determinant of the pricing of IPOs. The hypothesis to be tested is: IPOs with higher (lower) insider holdings at the time of the offering are priced higher (lower) as a result of lower (higher) required rates of return. Support for the hypothesis is based on agency theory, which postulates that additional risk is created when there is a perceived separation of ownership and control.There are several implications of this research. First, a greater appreciation of the sophistication of the IPO market with regard to the actions of the insiders should be gained. Second, the reader's knowledge of the activity and relative pricing of IPOs during the 1978–1985 time period should be enhanced. Third, insiders should realize that actions regarding their relative equity holdings at the time of the offering have an impact on the price of the offering. Finally, the reader should recognize that even in “hot markets” the actions of insiders at the time of an initial public offering regarding the sale of equity are monitored by the market.     

The Dynamics of Listed SMEs in China

We examine the dynamics of Chinese listed SMEs with respect to their post-market viability and growth after going public. The Kaplan–Meier estimation shows that SMEs are more likely to transition to a non-viable state than large firms. Further examination using the Cox model and the random effects model shows that SME dynamics are shaped by heterogeneous firm and industry characteristics, as well as the underlying financial and institutional environments. SME viability is distinguished by its ability to grow through learning along with age, aided by lower business risk, more focused business, easier access to equity finance, and less exposure to competition in remote regions. SME growth is constrained by a dispersed ownership structure, insufficient infrastructure to protect firms which are active in R&D, and the limited financing role of equity markets. The study also reveals that government initiatives in support of strategic development in the service industries and in the coastal regions are of importance in spurring SME growth.