Linking positive affect and motivation to transfer within training: a multilevel study

Motivation to transfer is a critical element for successful training transfer. Whereas recent research has shown that training‐related factors such as training design are related to motivation to transfer, participants’ affective experiences have been neglected. Based on the broaden‐and‐build theory of positive emotions, we conducted a multilevel study to investigate the relationship between positive affect and motivation to transfer at the individual and at the group level of analysis. A total of 867 training participants drawn from 78 three‐day training programmes were surveyed on the first day (T1) and the last day (T2) of the training. As expected, positive affect was found to be related to motivation to transfer at both T1 and T2. Furthermore, the relationship between positive affect at T1 and motivation to transfer at T2 was mediated by motivation to transfer at the individual and the group level at T1 and by positive affect at the individual level at T2.     

An investigation into the relationship between training evaluation and the transfer of training

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between training evaluation and the transfer of training in organizations. We hypothesized that training evaluation frequency will be related to higher rates of transfer because evaluation information can identify weaknesses that lead to improvements in training programs and create greater accountability among stakeholders for training outcomes. The data were obtained from 150 training professionals who were members of a training and development association in Canada. The results indicated that training evaluation frequency is positively related to training transfer. However, among Kirkpatrick's four levels of evaluation criteria, only behavior and results criteria were related to higher rates of transfer of training, indicating that the level of evaluation criteria is important for training transfer. These results indicate the importance of organizational‐level initiatives such as training evaluation in addition to individual‐level practices for facilitating the transfer of training.     

Transfer of training: a case‐study of outsourced training for staff from Bhutan

The article examines the perceptions of managers, academics and technical staff in relation to the transfer of training resulting from their participation in out‐country training funded by Bhutan's Ministry of Education. Out‐country training refers to in‐service education, training and professional development programs, especially in relation to technical education, higher education and specialization courses undertaken abroad. The objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of out‐country training over a five‐year period to gauge the level of training transfer among three different types of participants. The methodology included surveying 149 Bhutanese out‐country training participants between 1999 and 2003. A representative sampling technique was used to select 58 academics, 46 managers and 45 technical support staff for inclusion in the survey. Semistructured in‐depth interviews were also conducted with 19 of these trainees across the three categories. Results of the study indicate high initial levels of motivation in all trainees, but a change in attitude toward their training once it was underway. On return to the workplace, participants reported even less confidence in their ability to transfer their learning compared to their confidence reported before the program began.     

Contextual factors that foster or inhibit para‐teacher professional development: the case of an Indian,non‐governmental organization

The appointment of para‐professionals to overcome skill shortages and/or make efficient use of expensive resources is well established in both developing and developed countries. The present research concerns para‐teachers in India. The literature on para‐teachers is dominated by training for special needs settings, largely in developed societies. Little has been published about para‐teachers working in developing countries with children without disabilities, despite this being a common occurrence. The present research investigates how contextual factors influence the design and implementation of professional support for para‐teachers. The research participants were 12 para‐teachers and five management and administrative staff. Contextual factors included characteristics of para‐teachers, classrooms and students from under‐resourced settings; and the practices and policies found in a non‐school educational setting, here a non‐governmental organization. The study indicates that each factor has potentially enhancing and hindering effects which need to be taken into consideration when designing and implementing professional development work.     

What predicts skill transfer? An exploratory study of goal orientation,training self‐efficacy and organizational supports

Results from a study examining the predictors of skill transfer from an instructional to a work environment are presented. Prior research indicates that skill transfer is a function of both individual and contextual factors. A total of 186 employees from a work organization were surveyed on individual dimensions (goal orientation, training self‐efficacy) and contextual factors (supervisor and peer support). Pre‐training motivation was proposed as proximal training outcome and further connected to the distal outcome, skill transfer. Analyses with structural equation modeling using EQS indicate that individual dimensions, such as mastery‐approach goal orientation and training self‐efficacy, are related to pre‐training motivation. Also, contextual factors, such as peer support, predicted both pre‐training motivation and skill transfer, while supervisor support was unrelated to either pre‐training motivation or skill transfer. Pre‐training motivation, in turn, was related to skill transfer. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

The role of training in reducing poverty: the case of agricultural workers receiving microcredit in Bangladesh

The policy of providing microcredit and skill training to poor agricultural workers in developing countries is well‐established. In this study, an attempt has been made to assess the effectiveness of the training part of that policy. BRAC (formerly the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee), the largest non‐governmental organization in Bangladesh, is making efforts to alleviate poverty by providing microcredit and relevant training to landless and marginal borrowers, who have less than 1.5 acres of land, in order to enhance their standard of living. The study aims to assess the effects of BRAC's training programs on the recipients' total household expenditure. Primary data were collected from female borrowers who participated in the microcredit programs of BRAC and these data reflect the key role women play in agricultural work and the lack of research on their status. The study shows that the training provided to the borrowers failed to create any significant impact on their household expenditure because only a small percentage of borrowers received training and the duration of the training was limited (on average three days per person). Moreover, many of those who received training experienced only a modest income effect. The findings are important not just for the practical purpose of influencing policies for reducing poverty in Bangladesh but also for their contribution to the understanding of the effectiveness of training. The existing literature is concerned mainly with the effectiveness of training in the context of business and other organizations in developed countries. Research on the effectiveness of training in developing countries, particularly in alleviating poverty, is less evident. Moreover, the present research is also exceptional as it focuses only on female trainees.     

Management training for women: International experiences and lessons for Canada

In Canada, there is growing recognition that women play an increasingly important role in the working world. Management training programs for women have been considered as a route to prepare women to be more effective managers. This paper highlights some of the major issues and concerns being discussed outside Canada by those engaged in management education and training for women — objectives and content of programs, nature of participants, training methods, choice of trainers, organization and evaluation of programs. References are made to a few international programs to illustrate how some of these concerns have been addressed. Implications for training programs in Canada, from both practical as well as research points of view, are discussed.Natalie Lam teaches organizational behaviour, human resources management, and organizational communication at the University of Ottawa. Research interests in cross-cultural management, women in management, and inter-disciplinary research (e.g. organizational issues of physical distribution and materials management). Consultant for private and public sector organizations, such as the Canadian International Development Agency, Bell Northern Research, Institute of Canadian Bankers, and the Canadian Police College.     

Capacity building as a tool for assessing training and development activity: an Indian case study

In recognition of its increasing importance, many organizations make periodic assessments of their training and development activity. The objective of the present study was to extend the concept of capacity building to the assessment of training and development activity in an automobile component manufacturing organization, using a developed and validated instrument. The study subjects were 36 middle‐level managers selected on a stratified basis. The research described here provides a new methodology for the evaluation of training and development activity. Perception‐based, consensus‐oriented assessment is proposed as a valuable tool for evaluating and improving training and development activity. Brainstorming sessions led to suggestions for enhancing capacity in identified lag areas. In addition, this assessment serves as a platform for subsequent evaluation of the effectiveness of training and development activity.     

Factors in the effective transfer of knowledge from multinational enterprises to their foreign subsidiaries: a Mozambican case study

The purpose of this article is to better understand the role of internal stakeholders in subsidiaries of multinational companies (MNCs) in order to offer potential insights into the cross‐border transfer of knowledge from those companies’ headquarters to their subsidiaries. The focus is upon subsidiaries in developing countries, here Mozambique. More specifically, the article is concerned with identifying factors that influence the learning of internal stakeholders and noting practices which seem associated with a high level of absorptive capacity and performance of subsidiaries. The starting point is evidence of ineffective transfer of knowledge by MNCs to their subsidiaries in developing countries, with consequent sub‐standard performance. The research reported involves four case studies of Portuguese companies operating in Mozambique and draws on data from interviews with senior and middle managers in the firms’ Mozambican subsidiaries. The results obtained suggest that successful knowledge transfer to overseas subsidiaries is found under the following conditions. First, the parent company knows the local context and provides a flow of relevant information. Second, application of knowledge locally is done flexibly to suit local circumstances. Next, a participatory approach is used so that local staff can see why the knowledge conveyed is necessary. Fourth, explanation and demonstration are key techniques, with major roles for on‐the‐job training, continuous improvement and training at headquarters. Finally, issues arising from local culture may need to be addressed.     

Modification of Transferred Training Programmes for Multinational Chain Hotels in Korea

Transfer of training programmes between countries has created a circumstance that enhances the knowledge and skills of human resources in developing or underdeveloped countries along with the influence of globalisation in recent decades. The purpose of the study was to explore the hotels in Korea. The study was based on both qualitative and quantitative methods. A questionnaire was sent to training managers of all the multinational chain hotels in Korea. In addition, telephone interviews were conducted with the training managers of these hotels. The cross-case analysis revealed that the transfer of training programmes had certain patterns of modification shaped by the interacting factors in a three-level hierarchy: cultural and technical, organisational, and modifiers’ personal level. Each level also was found to have a subset of factors influencing the modification patterns. Future research is recommended to investigate the framework of the study in other countries and industries.     

The transfer of training at macro level in least developed countries: a case study of the ‘brain‐drain’ in Eritrea

Over the past four decades, governments in the least developed countries (LDCs – a categorization adopted by the United Nations) have been attempting to improve the skills and knowledge of their public servants by providing local and international training programs. Despite these training activities, however, many LDCs continue to experience acute shortages of high‐level technical and managerial skills. This is because LDCs are increasingly unable to retain trained personnel employed in the public sector, resulting in a ‘brain‐drain’. The present study critically assesses that part of a major human resource development project implemented in Eritrea, an LDC, between 1998 and 2005, which provided overseas scholarships for 674 public servants. Almost two‐thirds did not return to Eritrea, and the study seeks to establish the reasons for nonreturn. It identifies from the literature five factors that appear to influence return and examines the relationship between these and nonreturn. Economic and political conditions and lack of peace and stability were significant in explaining changes in nonreturn. The results point to the areas of change needed to enable LDCs to retain highly qualified nationals. These areas involve significant changes in government policy, but training providers themselves may be able to take some steps to minimize the lack of benefit from their human resource development investment. The conclusion is that the retention and effective utilization of trained people by LDCs remains challenging. In theoretical terms, the concern of this study can be seen as a macro‐level expression of the transfer problem.     

Identifying trainers' knowledge of training transfer research findings – closing the gap between research and practice

Training professionals were surveyed concerning their knowledge of transfer of training research. Survey items were developed from an integrative literature review based on empirical findings of factors that directly or indirectly (through learning) influence training transfer. Survey results suggest that training professionals are in agreement with empirical transfer findings in the areas of training design and the work environment, but differ in their agreement of how individual differences impact transfer success and of relevant transfer evaluation findings. Training professionals were more familiar with academic transfer research when they occupied higher job positions within their organization, held a training certification and had a college degree. The results of our study and the implications for addressing the research‐to‐practice gap among training professionals are also discussed.     

Foreign trade potential,small enterprise development and job creation in developing countries

Increasing American competitiveness in the international economy requires expanding trade with emerging markets, especially in developing countries of Asia, Latin America and Africa. Historically, as developing countries' economies have grown, the capacity for exporting and importing have both expanded. In the future, the capacity for trade in developing countries will depend increasingly on their ability to create sufficient numbers of jobs to absorb their rapidly growing labor forces.Unlike Western countries, most developing economies have a small percentage of their labor forces in large-scale manufacturing and a large share engaged in small-scale and informal sector enterprises. Small-scale enterprises have been the primary sources of labor absorption in cities in developing countries and will continue to play a crucial role in the future. Experience has shown that policies for improving the capacity of small-scale enterprises to generate jobs have had only mixed results in developing countries. The challenge facing governments and the private sector in the future include: (1) creating an economic environment conducive to small-enterprise development; (2) removing regulatory and administrative obstacles to small-enterprise expansion; (3) tailoring small-enterprise promotion programs to local conditions and needs; (4) providing capital and credit for small-business owners; (5) involving the private sector in small-enterprise development programs; and (6) providing technical assistance, training and educational programs through public-private partnerships.     

Transfer of learning from management development programmes: testing the Holton model

Transfer of learning from management development programmes has been described as the effective and continuing application back at work of the knowledge and skills gained on those programmes. It is a very important issue for organizations today, given the large amounts of investment in these programmes and the small amounts of that investment that actually translates into an improved individual and organizational performance. This paper describes the testing of the Holton model of learning transfer and suggests amendments to the model where appropriate. A sample of participants on a management development programme within the Irish health service completed the Learning Transfer System Inventory based on the Holton model. The data obtained were analysed using multiple regression and partial correlation techniques. Results indicate that the model does adequately represent the effects of its factors, although a slightly revised model is presented. Important relationships between factors are identified, and the central role of the learners’ personal capacity for transfer (hitherto unreported in the literature) and their motivation to transfer in facilitating transfer is highlighted. In practical terms, the tested model can be used as a diagnostic tool by identifying individual, training design and work environment transfer issues in need of attention and by developing strategies to deal with them. It can also be used as a framework for the evaluation of training and development interventions, examining factors outside the traditional range of most training evaluation efforts and providing a more complete picture of the success or otherwise of that intervention.     

The effects of training design,individual characteristics and work environment on transfer of training

This study aims to gain insight into some of the factors that determine the transfer of training to the work context. The present research examined the relationship between three types of predictors on transfer of training, including training design, individual characteristics and work environment. Data was collected at two points in time from 182 employees in a large grocery organization. The results indicated that transfer design, performance self‐efficacy, training retention and performance feedback were significantly related to transfer of training. Contrary to expectation, supervisory support was not significantly related to transfer of training. These results suggest that in order to enhance transfer of training, organizations should design training that gives trainees the ability to transfer learning, reinforces the trainee's beliefs in their ability to transfer, ensures the training content is retained over time and provides appropriate feedback regarding employee job performance following training activities.     

Social support at the workplace,motivation to transfer and training transfer: a multilevel indirect effects model

Supervisor support, peer support and transfer motivation have been identified as important predictors of training transfer. Transfer motivation is thought to mediate the support–training transfer relationship. Especially after team training interventions that include all team members (i.e. whole‐team training), individual perception of these factors might be shared among team members. However, an integration of the team level in the training transfer process is rare, yet still needed. Analyzing 194 employees from 34 teams in the context of whole‐team training interventions, we found similar relationships and processes at both levels of analysis: social support enhances transfer motivation at the individual and team levels. Furthermore, motivation to transfer increases training transfer and serves as a connecting mechanism in the social support–training transfer link. The results underline the importance of: (1) considering multiple levels in theories and research about the training transfer process; and (2) ensuring the practice of individual‐directed support and a shared, supportive climate within teams.     

The moderating role of self‐efficacy in the organizational culture–training transfer relationship

This paper aims to examine the combined effects of self‐efficacy and organizational culture on employees' transfer of knowledge/skills acquired through training. The questionnaires were distributed to 252 newly hired employees working in a service organization in Greece. Each of the independent variables examined added incrementally to the prediction of training transfer. Moreover, self‐efficacy was found to act as a moderator in the organizational culture–training transfer relationship. High self‐efficacy was found to strengthen both achievement culture–training transfer as well as humanistic culture‐training transfer relationships, whereas low self‐efficacy weakened these relationships. The study has practical implications by providing insights into ways of engaging employees in transferring the skills acquired during training. This investigation extends previous research by demonstrating that self‐efficacy acts as an accentuating factor in the relationship between organizational culture orientations and new hires' transfer of training.     

Targeting Financial Management Training at Low‐Income Audiences

While interest in financial management training programs for low‐income persons has grown in recent years, the specific training needs of low‐income consumers have not been well articulated. This article describes needed training content for such audiences, based on review of previous research and the authors’ experiences in evaluating the Financial Links for Low‐Income People (FLLIP) program. We also illustrate how the choice of financial management training models can seriously impact the subgroups of the low‐income population who attend training, as well as the success of programs in recruiting and graduating participants. The implications of these findings both for financial management curriculum development and for the selection of program models are presented.     

外商直接投资与发展中国家的人力资本发展

人力资本不仅仅影响一国内部经济增长,同时也和外部经济交往比如外商直接投资(FDI)存在互为补充的关系。FDI能够对东道国的人力资本发展起到重要作用,主要通过影响东道国的正规教育和在职培训提升东道国的人力资本水平;发展中国家要加大本国的教育投资;鼓励跨国公司的培训活动和实施吸引人才的制度;实现FDI、人力资本和技术外溢的良性循环。