Motivation and strategy: MNCs׳ embeddedness in China׳s standardization based innovation

This paper aims to understand why MNCs choose different embedding strategies in standardization based innovation, and how MNCs׳ competitive landscapes evolve alongside the transition of indigenous innovation in China. Using the multiple case study approach based on the interviews and archival data about China׳s mobile standards, we find that MNCs may choose to proactively or reactively embed in China׳s business and institutional systems by aligning their interests with the standard-based indigenous innovation strategy. Although there are high risks in China׳s standardization, MNCs cannot ignore the huge benefits of China׳s mobile market, and may join in this standardization process when they are ensured the government support would sustain.     

Japan׳s prefectural digital divide: A multivariate and spatial analysis

This study of the digital divide within Japan utilizes data from the country׳s 47 prefectures for multivariate and spatial analysis of distributions of information and communication technology (ICT) variables. The paper constructs an exploratory conceptual model of technology utilization and expenditures in Japan, induced from prior literature. Ten dependent ICT utilization and expenditure factors are posited to be related to 12 independent demographic, economic, infrastructure, education, innovation and openness factors. The relationship of the independent to dependent factors is moderated by analysis of spatial patterns of technology utilization to examine proximities and reduce spatial bias. Based on the model, a multivariate analysis identifies correlates of the nation׳s digital divide, including patents registered by Japanese citizens, newspaper circulation, students and pupils per capita, household expenditures on education, rural/urban status, and Japan׳s aged population structure which has wide generational gaps. Spatial clusters and outliers of ICTs in prefectures are analyzed, with attention to their policy impacts. Findings suggest modifications to the conceptual model. Implications of findings for the country׳s official national technology planning policies are considered and recommendations made to expand them.     

Development of 5G – Identifying organizations active in publishing,patenting, and standardization

Publications, patents, standard-essential patents (SEPs), and standard contributions are important indicators for the drivers in the technology development of 5G. However, current 5G technology reports predominately draw on patent data to identify technology developing organizations, ignoring the importance of publications and standard contributions. Therefore, we identify 5G technology developing organizations in publishing, patenting, and standardization and compile a unique dataset to identify leading organizations per category and to identify possible correlations and interdependencies. We find that for companies offering fair, reasonable, and non-discriminatory (FRAND) licensing conditions related to standard-essential patents, their publication, patent, and standard contribution counts highly correlate. Our findings suggest that 5G technology developing companies holding a high number of patents declared to 5G manage the three contributing factors of publishing, patenting, and standardization to optimize their impact on 5G technology development. Furthermore, we show that patenting and standardization are dominated by a few large companies from the United States, China, Korea, Japan, Finland, and Sweden, while publishing is much more globally distributed and not as concentrated. Our research suggests that scientific findings can be more easily published via scientific journals and that barriers might hinder filing patents and participating in standardization committees focusing on 5G, which only large companies overcome.     

Linguistic diversity on the internet: Arabic,Chinese and Cyrillic script top-level domain names

The deployment of Arabic, Chinese, and Cyrillic top-level domain names is explored in this research by analyzing technical and policy documents of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), as well as newspaper articles in the respective language regions. The tension between English uniformity at the root level of the Internet׳s domain names system, and language diversity in the global Internet community, has resulted in various technological solutions surrounding Arabic, Chinese, and Cyrillic language domain names. These standards and technological solutions ensure the security and stability of the Internet; however, they do not comprehensively address the linguistic diversity needs of the Internet. ICANN has been transforming into an international policy organization, yet its linguistic diversity policies appear disconnected from the diversity policies of the United Nations, and remain technically oriented. Linguistic diversity in relation to IDNs at this stage mostly focus on the language representation of major languages that are spoken in powerful nation-states, who use the rhetoric of national pride, local business branding, and inclusion of non-English speakers. This situation surfaces the tension between nation-states and the new international governing institution ICANN.     

战后日本政府投资的经验、问题与启示

战后，日本通过一系列大规模的政府投资，经济得以迅速恢复并长时间保持高速增长，其平均增长速度一度超过其他发达资本主义国家。20世纪90年代后，随着泡沫经济的破灭，政府投资的效用下降，原有的政府投资制度受到广泛质疑。当前，根据国内外形势，我国政府决定启动大规模的政府投资。日本政府投资的经验和教训可以为我国的政府投资提供启示与借鉴。     

Characterizing and comparing the evolution of the major global economies in information and communication technologies

In this paper, we characterise and compare status and evolution of the ICT industry of the six major global economies in ICT: China, the EU, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and the USA. For this, we employ official data covering the period 2006–2009. Our analysis shows that although the EU is the largest economy of the world, it is the least ICT-specialised economy of all six major ICT economies. The USA is clearly the top global player in ICT in many respects. In both ICT Manufacturing and ICT Services it has the largest Value Added, BERD, BERD intensity and labour productivity. We further observe that China has, by far, the largest number of employees in both ICT Manufacturing and Services, while its level of ICT BERD remains low. China is however an emerging economy and economic indicators of its ICT sector have strongly grown from 2006 to 2009. Japan׳s ICT sector has a larger weight in the national economy than those of the USA, EU, and China. Moreover, it is the country from which the highest number of ICT patent applications originate. We also find that, of all six major global economies in ICT, Taiwan and Korea have the most ICT-specialised economies, with a strong orientation towards Manufacturing. Finally, we discuss selected results of our analysis and conclude the paper with tentative policy implications for the EU.     

The latecomer strategy for global ICT standardization: Indigenous innovation and its dilemma

This article reviews China׳s changing standardization strategies amidst the standards competitions that take place both domestically in China and globally. The relevant policies in China now support indigenous innovation, particularly in the information and communication technologies (ICT) industry by using standards, encourage domestic firms to patent their standard-related technologies, and promote innovation-oriented inter-firm alliances. The three cases examined illustrate the challenges that the Chinese government faces in implementing the policies. Most of all, while the government has actively promoted indigenous innovation as a latecomer strategy for global standardization, there are possibilities of clash with the international norms for free competition and economic liberalization which China is supposed to comply with. There are also oppositions from those domestic firms that mainly export products compliant with the international standards set by advanced countries, and from local authorities that support those firms. The demands for international compliance are often strengthened by multinationals importing products compliant with the international standards. These clashes and oppositions give a dilemma to the policy makers who want to push the standardization strategy based on indigenous innovation.     

Global political economy of technology standardization: A case of the Korean mobile telecommunications market

This paper examines empirical cases of standardization in the Korean mobile market as vehicles for approaching the broader political and institutional context of standardization in telecommunications. A consideration of Korean standardization in the mobile telecommunications market is particularly interesting because it reveals how the state's political interests influence standards decisions, which are primarily driven by market and technological changes in telecommunications. Judged from the social construction of technology perspective which sheds light not only on technology itself but also on political, social and economic interests that surround transformations in technology, this paper highlights power relations among the major actors that have made technology standards decisions in Korea regarding second (2G) and third-generation (3G) mobile telephony. The paper also attempts to show how the Korean government has dealt with the diverse interests of various market actors while pursuing its own policy agenda.     

The ‘China’ question in mobile Internet standard-making: Insights from expert interviews

This article explores the actions of Chinese stakeholders as norm entrepreneurs in mobile Internet standard-making within the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). Through semi-structured interviews with key experts from the Internet stakeholder communities, this article contextualises a rapidly transforming and increasingly politicised issue in the broader context of China's engagement with the global multistakeholder Internet governance architecture, as well as the debate on China's rise in the Liberal International Order. Furthermore, it incorporates the views and experiences of technologists working first-hand in standard-making, as they are often disregarded in political-scientific literature. Through the analytical lens of cognitivist regime theory, this article argues that the stronger China and Chinese stakeholders grow economically and politically, the more they become involved in the existing Internet governance regime complex, increasing their influence in the existing institutional arrangements without necessarily acting for changing their norms, rules, and principles. Through these theoretical and methodological approaches, new light is shed on the role of private and public Chinese stakeholders and on the relation between them.     

A cross-cultural study on the leadership behaviour of Chinese and Japanese executives

In recent years the People's Republic of China has focused on economic development. The State called on scientists to contribute to the implementation of economic reform and leadership reconstruction. In the Institute of Psychology, Academia Sinica, a research group conducted a cross-cultural study on the leadership behavior of Chinese and Japanese executives. The performance maintenance (PM) theory of leadership which was widely adopted in Japan, has been introduced into China. The findings of the Chinese study conducted in 53 factories among 16260 respondents are compared with the results from the Japanese study by J. Misumi of Osaka University.The author is Professor of Psychology in the Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Science and Secretary-General of the Chinese Psychological Society     

日本纺织产业转型研究：基于政府的视角

日本政府针时纺织产业衰退采取了短期和长期相互结合的政策。政策的实施维护了日本社会秩序和政治局面的稳定，实现了产业结构合理化和高级化，而且在规模缩减的情况下，纺织产业重新焕发出活力。日本政府促进纺织产业转型的成功经验给予我国重要启示。     

The evolution of the internet of things industry and market in China: An interplay of institutions,demands and supply

This paper seeks to provide some explanation as to how demand-, supply- and institutions-related factors in China have affected the creation and diffusion of Internet of Things (IoT)-related products and services. Concerning demand side factors the paper demonstrates how potential market size and existing technology trajectory work in favor of IoT diffusion. As a related demand side factor the paper argues that, in terms of the technological trajectory, China has started farther from the frontier than most industrialized countries. The degree of incremental benefit from the IoT is thus higher in the country. As to the supply side factors, the article promotes an understanding of how Chinese technology companies have capitalized on a huge user base to develop IoT-based applications. It also suggests that technologies and expertise provided by foreign multinationals have also played crucial roles. Regarding formal institutions, the government's proactive policies have been a major factor in the IoT's evolution. It is also in the Chinese government's interest to develop IoT products to make censorship and surveillance more effective. Regarding informal institutions, Chinese consumers are less concerned than Westerners about being tracked and monitored, which provides a favorable condition for the adoption of IoT-enabled devices. Nonetheless, this condition is changing due to increasing abuse of consumer privacy. China and the U.S. are compared in terms of diffusion, key determinants, performance indicators and impacts of the IoT in order to understand the areas that China outperforms—and underperforms—the U.S. Some indicators are proposed to gauge the IoT-related performance and the impacts of the IoT.     

China׳s information security standardization: Analysis from the perspective of technical barriers to trade principles

There have been many attempts for ICT standardization in China. Among them, this paper deals with information security standards. Although information security is often mentioned regarding China?s ICT standardization, it has been rarely examined per se. While most studies on China?s ICT standardization focus on economic aspects (e.g. increased bargaining power) or the government?s role, this paper draws on legal aspects. We select WAPI and ZUC for case studies, and examine their legal aspects, particularly from the perspective of WTO?s TBT (technical barriers to trade) principles. We have found that China?s standardization strategy becomes international-bound and, in fact, the manner in which the Chinese government handles standardization projects has become refined, flexible, and communicative with foreign stakeholders. We see that the changes are responses to the trade concerns raised by foreign stakeholders in various TBT Committee meetings and bilateral meetings. In addition, the Chinese government appears to become market-oriented even in the field of information security where it previously maintained a rigid stance on the ground of national security. This paper points out that the changes are attributed to growing external pressure from foreign governments and firms as well as to internal efforts toward innovation based on indigenous technology.     

韩国经济发展中的对外贸易

韩国从20世纪60年代试图开始实质性的经济开发，到2004年为止与230多个国家和地区进行贸易。2004年。其GDP是6801亿美元，为世界第10位，人均收入14162美元。交易额4783亿美元，为世界第12位。2004年外币储备额是1991亿美元．居世界第4位。韩国以韩国式经济开发，即实行市场亲和式政府干预的经济政策，通过出口为主导的经济开发实现了经济的快速增长。正高速增长的中国亦以中国式社会主义．以中国式改革开放追求出口和贸易的共同增长。中国和韩国都持续着经济的高速发展．被公认为是以出口和贸易为主的经济开发模式的典范。韩国进口能源、原材料和资本品，出口工业制成品。中国的贸易由外资企业为主进口半成品和资本品，出口工业制成品。而中国贸易在经济发展中所发挥的影响与韩国相比还小。为了持续增长，韩国需要以技术和经营革新提高国际竞争力．尤其要改善以资本品进口为主的贸易结构。     

An International Investigation of Problem‐Solving Performance in the Semiconductor Industry*

Using a unique survey of engineers in major semiconductor companies located in Japan, South Korea, and the United States, this article analyzes how a firm's human resource (HR) system (i.e., practices that structure work, develop skills, and reward performance) and knowledge system (i.e., information access, sharing and control) are related to the problem‐solving performance of engineers. Because of the short product market life cycles in the semiconductor industry, expeditious problem solving is an important performance goal. Therefore, this article examines the performance of engineers in terms of the time it takes them to solve problems in the context of their firms' HR and knowledge systems. It was anticipated during this study that externally oriented organizational systems, which support individual career performance and mobility (an externally oriented HR system) and the use of private knowledge sources (an externally oriented knowledge system), would be associated with superior performance in terms of problem‐solving speed. The findings support this hypothesis and demonstrate the importance of externally oriented HR systems and at the same time suggest the surprising insignificance of the orientation of the knowledge systems. These findings are applicable to engineers in the sample from the United States, whereas the findings for the Korean and Japanese engineers are inconclusive. International variation is found where the U.S. engineers work under the most externally oriented and the Japanese engineers under the least externally oriented systems, and the Korean engineers fall in between. The findings of this article suggest that when constructing a work environment for new product development, managers should take into account how the underlying components of their organizational systems contribute to an internal or external focus, and how this orientation may influence performance.     

日本碳纤维产业发展及现状

本文主要介绍了世界碳纤维的行业格局及日本碳纤维的产业发展,分析了日本碳纤维产业位居世界领先地位的事实,并以东丽、三菱丽阳、东邦三家日本主要碳纤维生产企业为代表,介绍了日本碳纤维技术和产业的发展历程,总结了其发展经验及对我国的借鉴。     

“3·11”日本大地震对能源市场的影响

3月11日以来,日本地震、海啸、核泄漏三重灾害,造成社会经济重大损失。日本经济短期受重创,中期将提振,但长期低迷的局面不会改变;日本地震不会改变全球经济复苏大势;对中国经济的影响利弊共存,但影响有限。地震重创了日本能源体系,将引发全球油气市场供需出现一些新变化：日本部分炼厂关闭致使亚太地区石油供需结构发生变化,成品油价格可能上涨,轻重原油价差可能扩大;核电危机将促使日本大量增加LNG进口,并将影响全球能源结构;日本化工产品生产受到冲击,带动全球部分化工品价格升高。日本核电危机造成各国对核电安全的担忧,可能影响世界各国核电发展,导致油气需求增加、中长期油价走高。日本大地震启示中国：应完善对突发事件的应急响应机制;加快推进天然气价格机制改革,加快发展天然气;适当调整原油和成品油进出口结构,统筹运作;推进与资源国的能源合作,确保能源的长期稳定供应。     

Factors Affecting New Product Success: Cross-Country Comparisons

Although considerable effort has been devoted to identifying the factors that contribute to new product success and failure, plenty of work remains to be done in this area. For example, many studies of this subject focus on companies in specific parts of the world (in particular, North America, Europe, and Japan). It remains to be seen whether the findings from these studies apply to the new product development (NPD) efforts of companies in other regions, let alone on a global basis. Sanjay Mishra, Dongwook Kim, and Dae Hoon Lee address this issue in a study of the factors that contribute to the success or failure of NPD efforts in South Korean firms. To explore the question of whether a global set of success factors can be identified, they compare their findings with those of similar studies conducted in Canada and China. Classifying these countries in terms of stages of economic development (with China and Canada at opposite extremes and Korea in the middle), they expect to find the greatest dissimilarities in their comparisons of China and Canada. Marketing managers from 144 Korean firms provided in formation about 288 successful and unsuccessful products. Their responses indicate that the factors most closely related to new product outcomes in Korea are market intelligence, product-firm compatibility, the nature of the new product idea (for example, whether the product idea was market derived, whether the product specifications were clearly defined by the marketplace), launch effort, and general characteristics of the new product venture (such as the product's innovativeness to the market and its technical complexity). Several of these factors were emphasized in studies of Canadian and Chinese NPD success, though respondents to those studies also highlighted the importance of the product offering and proficiency of formal NPD activities. Contrary to expectations, China and Canada show the greatest similarity among the three countries studied, in terms of the relative importance of the various NPD success factors. On the other hand, China and Korea are more similar in terms of the effects of the variables studied. In other words, if a variable is related to new product failure in Korea, that variable is most likely also related to failure in China. Although some similarities are evident among all three countries, the findings in this study do not point toward a single, global formula for NPD success.     

Jeong exchange and collective leadership in Korean organizations

How does the Korean management system work with open interaction and without excessive power abuse, in spite of the emphasis on authority and hierarchy in Korean society? This paper explicates the concept of jeong exchange, an emotional support mechanism based on informal social ties, as the basis of social capital in Korean collectives (woori). Jeong exchange is first described and then contrasted with related concepts in the other major Confucian societies of China and Japan. It is then used to develop the notion of “collective leadership” to describe the nature and process of Korean leadership.     

The university entrepreneur: a census and survey of attributes and outcomes

This study looks at 400 technology transfer disclosures and their inventors over a 10‐year period at a large US research university. We find that faculty productivity in terms of patenting is not related to commercialization success, but entrepreneurial qualities are significantly correlated. Results indicate that the significant factors in successfully forming a university spin‐out are the level of experience of the faculty member and participation in an industry sponsored research agreement. We also find that the academic inventor's entrepreneurial experience and inclination toward commercialization have the most positive impacts on the formation of a new venture.