Research on asian cultures and management: Some epistemological issues

This paper highlights the major issues raised in the conference Culture and Management Styles in Southeast Asian countries and discusses the espistomological and methodological problems of doing comparative management research in general as well as in the region.The paper identifies the themes which emerged from the conference discussions as (1) the fundamental rationale for research and the apparent weakness in making it explicit, (2) the questions of epistomology as regards causation, and the (3) more mundane issues faced in conforming to standard research paradigms. These issues are discussed under the following headings: What is to be included, subjects' espoused theory or theory in use, idiographic versus nomothetic approaches, more universal variables, problems of defining culture. The implications and significance of different approaches and disciplines concerning these issues are considered, and guidelines for future research in the area are suggested.Professor Gordon S. Redding is with the Department of Management Studies, University of Hong Kong.     

The Egalitarian Leader: A Comparison of Leadership in Australia and New Zealand

This article compares leadership in Australia and New Zealand based on data collected as a part of the GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) 62-nation culture and leadership project. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used to demonstrate that etic (universal) dimensions of Charismatic and Self-Protective leadership are evident in both cultures, but that the dimensions have emic (local) culturally determined manifestations. These emic manifestations were stronger in New Zealand than in Australia. Leadership effectiveness incorporated the negative emic dimension of Bureaucratic leadership (both countries), and the positive emic dimension of Egalitarian leadership in Australia and Team leadership in New Zealand. Both models of leadership nonetheless represent styles of leadership based on egalitarian principles.     

History and managerial culture in Singapore: “Pragmatism”, “openness” and “paternalism”

This paper examines the historical evolution of culture and management in Singapore, the existence of cultural fluidity in the society and the openness of Singapore to foreign management in relation to the changes in the environment resulting from modernization and development. Management in Singapore has always been multinational in origin. It has also been influenced considerably by the Chinese family system. It is in a state of flux; new and foreign practices are continually assimilated and adapted. Inspite of the wide variations in management practices, Singapore management remained characteristically pragmatic and open as well as paternalistic.Dr. Chong Li Choy is Senior Lecturer in the School of Management, National University of Singapore.     

Science,technology and engineering: Building lifelong bridges

In response to what is envisaged as a crisis in scientific and technological literacy, various organizations and governmental agencies have put forward recommendations for enriching students' science and technology experiences in formal and informal learning environments. This paper examines one such organization — the Professional Engineers Ontario — and their Innovators in the School initiative. Through this student outreach programme, engineers, scientists and technologists volunteer their time to visit elementary and secondary level students, encouraging them to pursue science, technology and engineering careers. In particular, this research identifies issues that the Innovators (interestingly, over half are women) consider to be important for promoting a positive image of science to young people. First, the paper considers what an image of science might potentially be. Second, it addresses the question of how Innovators and other educators (teachers, policy-makers, curriculum planning teams) might promote this positive image in the classroom and school.     

Paths to Common Ground? A Rejoinder to Dewey's Response

While subsequent discussion in this Review has failed to reconcile the merger policies proposed by Dewey and Keyes, it has suggested that they are not as far apart as they seemed at first reading. It now appears that both writers advocate a serious critical consideration of the efficiencies claims advanced by proponents of otherwise unacceptable mergers. Moreover, there may be a possibility that Dewey's special large-firm merger control could be defended on grounds which would not conflict with Keyes' proposal but would simply complement it.     

Tasks in technology

Technology has long been recognised as a task-centred activity, but far too little work has been done to understand the nature of tasks and how they operate as teaching and learning tools. The problems surrounding Attainment Target 1 (AT1) in the national curriculum in England and Wales provide ample evidence of this. This paper explores — both in principle and through empirical research data — two central features of tasks ie pupil autonomy/teacher control and the role of the client or user of the end product. Very contrasting views about tasks emerge from the four key stages.     

Transcending Paradox: The Chinese “Middle Way” Perspective

Western thought is noted for its strengths in categorization and analysis; Eastern, or Chinese thought, is noted for its integrative and encompassing nature. This article seeks to bridge the two. Specifically, it aims to enrich Western thinking and the existing body of paradox literature by proposing the idea of paradoxical integration, a concept derived from the Chinese middle way philosophy. Paradoxical integration, the notion that two opposites (such as self and other) may be interdependent in nature and together constitute a totality (integration), is introduced as one means of transcending paradox and the conventional Western conceptualization of exclusive opposites. It suggests how we can apply the concept of interdependent opposites in a both/and framework to foster reconciliation of the apparent polarities of such dichotomies as competition and cooperation. The article concludes with a discussion of the broad implications of the concept of paradoxical integration upon both academic research and business practice.An erratum to this article can be found at     

Constructing design and technology an early years perspective

This paper argues that a pedagogic model grounded in both constructivist and Vygotskyian theory can be consistently applied throughout Design and Technology education. The constructivist model outlined, is borrowed from the work of Rosalind Driver in Science education and applies a perspective grounded in Piaget and moderated by Ausubel. This perspective involves a clear recognition that: The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. This argument is extended further to cover the acquisition of scientific, design and technological capabilities. The paper focuses on how effective learning is achieved when new understandings are related to appropriate existing concepts and cognitive structures. Vygotsky's conception of the zone of proximal development is utilised to show how cognitive functions that have not yet matured and which the child is unable to apply independently, can be productively applied, with the assistance of an educator. Child development is, from this perspective, dependent upon existing competencies, knowledge and understandings being challenged and extended with support, it is argued however, that it is essential that the challenges are not so great or irrelevant that the child experiences failure. The consequences of allowing individuals to experience educational failure are widely apparent in the context of science and technology throughout our society. The role of play in the early years is seen as particularly valuable in this context. From this perspective the essential task for the teacher must be to clearly identify the limits of proximal development and to restrict as far as possible their teaching to this zone. The identification of such limits demands an appreciation of progression within the learning context. The paper argues that the structure of the attainment targets within the UK Design and Technology National Curriculum provides teachers with a framework of constructive scaffolding within which children may be given the maximum freedom and autonomy while developing their practical capability in designing and making. This heuristic framework may be lost in the application of the new proposals for Design and Technology.     

The role of the ideal organization in comparative management: A cross cultural perspective of Japan & Korea

It is popular to talk of the Confucian Work Ethic when explaining the successes of Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore. This is not an accurate impression. The authors of this article found significant differences in management practices — both actual and ideal — between Japan and South Korea.Professors Lane Kelley, Reginald Worthley and Harry Lie are from the College of Business Administration, University of Hawaii while Professor Arthur Whatley is from the College of Business Administration & Economics, New Mexico State University.     

“Excellent” systems analysis: The Singapore context

Within the broad context of Singapore's IT2000 Project, an exploratory research project was conducted as part of an on-going program to identify the perceptions of what constitutes the qualities of an excellent systems analyst. A grounded theory approach (theory building) was adopted using Kelly's RepGrid technique to conduct interviews with stakeholders in the systems analyst's performance in a large organization based in Singapore. In reviewing the constructs which emerged from the stakeholder interviews, 12 universal Themes were identified, such as Attitude, Knowledge, Communicate, including a number of sub-Themes. Each stakeholder group had its own interpretation of the relative importance of each Theme. These results have implications for the selection, training and development of systems analysts. Suggestions are made for further research to compare the cross-cultural perceptions of excellent systems analysts, as well as the testing of specific hypotheses derived from the results of this research project.Dr M. Gordon Hunter is with the Faculty of Management, The University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, Alberta, T1K 3M4 CANADA, tel: (403) 329-2672; fax: (403) 329-2038; e-mail: HUNTMG@CETUS.MNGT.ULETH.CA. Dr John Beck is with the Division of Human Resource and Quality Management, School of Accountancy and Business, Nanyang Technological University, Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 2263.     

China's Labour-Management System Reforms: Breaking the ‘Three Old Irons’ (1978–1999)

This article systematically examines the fundamental changes that have taken place in China's labour-management system since China embarked on its economic reforms in 1978. The system was, from the 1950s onwards, characterized by what were called the three old irons, i.e. life-time employment (the iron rice bowl), centrally administered wages (the iron wage), and state-controlled appointment and promotion of managerial staff (the iron chair). This study reviews the degree to which the reform process is breaking these three old irons and is arguably replacing them with a hybrid human resource management model, albeit with Chinese characteristics, that reflects the influence of foreign multinational corporations (MNCs) that have invested in China.     

Testing for Competitiveness of Markets for Long Distance Telephone Services: Competition Finally?

Telecommunications regulatory policy is driven by rhetoric and myth concerning the competitiveness of long-distance service. Relying on behavioral tests for competitiveness, this review brings up to date analytical work establishing the pattern of competition or the lack of competition since the 1984 AT & T divestiture. Through mid 1997, the three large long-distance carriers in setting their price-cost margins have managed to carry through on a previously established strategy of tacit collusion in both message toll services and WATS-type business services. The remarkable results have been that price-cost margins increased while sales concentration declined. This general pattern is not contradicted by the most recent offering of 15-cent per minute one price on new discount plans since that too implies an increase in carriers' price cost margins as concentration continued to decline.     

Social categorisation in Philippine organisations: Values toward collective identity and management through intergroup relations

The popularity of American-style management techniques in the Philippines implies an inevitable transition from the traditional values rooted in interdependent collectivism to the modern values of independent individualism. It is argued that an indigenous style of Filipino management is viable and imperative, which recognises the salience of collective identities in organisations. Based on a theory of social categorisation, a conceptual model of management through intergroup relations is presented. The main contention is that, in place of a dysfunctional conflict between Americanised management tactics and contemporary Filipino values, organisational effectiveness could ensue from a synchronic synergy between Filipino-style management tactics and the social categorisation effects of intragroup convergence and intergroup divergence.     

The NCAA Cartel and Competitive Balance in College Football

The NCAA regulates college football player recruiting, eligibility, and compensation. The economic theory of cartels suggests that one consequence may be reduced competitive balance. The enforced restrictions inhibit weak teams from improving, and protect strong teams from competition. A stratification is implied which should be evident over time as less churning in national rankings and conference standings, and fewer schools achieving national prominence. I test this general hypothesis by comparing various competitive balance measures for about 25 years before and after NCAA enforcement began in 1952. The hypothesis is supported by all measures at both the national and conference levels.     

An Investigation of Market Entry Strategy Selection: Exporting vs Foreign Direct Investment Modes—A Home-host Country Scenario

A critical issue for firms considering conducting business overseas is the choice of market entry mode. The two most widely options are exporting and foreign direct investment. This study examined a number of factors which have been suggested in the literature as important determinants of the choice between these two entry modes. Key factors examined included international business experience, immigrant effect, service requirements, and market size. The study employed a logistic regression analysis method to examine the market entry mode decisions of 124 New Zealand firms operating in a single foreign market (Taiwan). Significant factors identified included product type and proxy experience (firms' experience with Japan), and an immigrant effect which impacted on the choice of FDI mode.     

Technology Education as Solo Activity or Socially Constructed Learning

There is a continuing perception that current educational arrangements for technology education in modern liberal democracies are at odds with its actual delivery in the classroom (Dakers & Doherty 2003). The technè versus poiesis tension (explained later) is one major contributor to this perception. Equally, the practice of transmission versus constructivist pedagogies contributes to the mismatch between policy and practice.This paper will investigate how factors relating to these two contributions affect the delivery of technological education. It will begin by discussing the derivation of the word technology and how its modern incarnation has become not only amorphous, but confusing for technology education, in that the term can be taken to mean production on the one hand or process on the other. It will then explore technology teachers perceptions (and misperceptions) of what constitutes technology education, and discuss why this can lead to confusion. It will further consider how this can affect the pedagogy adopted. It will then examine two pedagogical frameworks which result from teachers perceptions of technology education as either; a process of internalisation of technological skills and functions as representations exclusively within the mind and unique to the individual, thus solo, or; a process of technological skills and functions embedded in sociocultural activity in which cognition is distributed across the internal mind and the external environment. Finally, the paper will offer a framework for the delivery of technology education set within a community of learners paradigm.     

Cultural dimensions in management and planning

The nature of management skills is such that they are culturally specific: a management technique or philosophy that is appropriate in one national culture is not necessarily appropriate in another. The paper describes the scope of (work-related) cultural differences as they were revealed by research in more than 50 countries around the world and discusses how these differences affect the validity of management techniques and philosophies in various countries within the functioning and meaning of planning.The author is with the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation, the Netherlands. This paper is a shorter version of the first part of a report MAN DEV/28. Culture and Management Development, written on behalf of the UNDP/ILO Interregional Project Co-operation among Management Development Institutions and published by the International Labour Office, Management Development Branch, Training Department, Geneva 1983.     

Perception of ‘economic reality’ with Design and Technology

Conclusion It has been argued that Design and Technology teachers would be helped by clear distinction between the terms, industry, business and economic. This would help to avoid the confusion between particular ways of viewing business (eg. through an economic concept such as profit maximisation;) and the multi-faceted character of the activity under observation. By this reasoning, the economic dimension of Design and Technology resides in the analysis of needs and the evaluation of products according to the value of the resources used up, and the value and distribution of the resources and products created. The link with discussion of value judgements in the subject (eg. Riggs and Conway, 1991) is very clear. So also is the dependence of this analysis on the definition of needs and evaluation and, crucially, the perceived relationship between the two, in learning and classroom practice.     

Max weber revisited: Some lessons from East Asian capitalistic development

Weber's thesis of the incompatibility of the Confucian ethos and rational entrepreneurial capitalism has been challenged by the economic miracles of many East Asian countries. One thesis presented here is that Confucianism is compatible with and has facilitated Asian capitalism by its influence on managerial values and practices. According to Weber, the release of tensions created by Calvinism was an important motivating force in the development of capitalism in the Occident. Confucianism offers a parallel mechanism to the profit-seeking drive in Western capitalism. We show that, in Confucian societies, there also exists tensions — in this case, between ideals and reality. These tensions are released through the Confucian concept of a ceaseless pursuit of renovation, a motivational mechanism for the development of capitalism in East Asian societies that parallels the West. Weber held that the classic model of bureaucracy, with impersonality at its core, is essential to the development and continuation of capitalism. Our second thesis is that humanism is an important element in Confucian bureaucracy and that humanistic bureaucracy can be both effective and efficient for the development of capitalism.     

Lysine and Price Fixing: How Long? How Severe?

In October 1996 the Archer Daniels Midland Company(ADM) pleaded guilty to criminal price fixing withrespect to sales of lysine and agreed to pay a $70million fine. Earlier, in August 1996 two Japaneseproducers and a Korean producer of lysine had agreedto plead guilty to criminal price fixing charges. Andearlier still, in July 1996 ADM and the two Japanesecompanies settled the civil suits filed by some harmedbuyers by agreeing to pay a sum of $45 million.It is this last event that serves as the focus forthis paper. The adequacy of the settlement amount wasa major area of dispute. Connor (1996, 1997, 1998)has claimed that the trebled damages to lysinepurchasers were an order of magnitude larger. Crucialto Connor's conclusions are his assumptions as to thetime period during which the conspiracy had an effecton prices and the but for price that otherwise wouldhave prevailed in the absence of the conspiracy. Thispaper will argue that Connor substantiallyover-estimated the period of the conspiracy andunder-estimated the but-for price.