Land tenure and rural development: Some issues relating to the Ciskei/Transkei region∗

Politicians, planners and development agencies in areas such as Ciskei and Transkei are debating and planning for land tenure reform on the assumption that it holds the key to successful agricultural and rural development. This paper considers various land reform options available to planners working in the rural areas of Ciskei and Transkei, and argues that land tenure reform on its own is unlikely to foster agricultural development. Other constraints such as inadequate access to capital, to infrastructure and to agricultural services must also be overcome if agricultural development is to be achieved. The author makes several suggestions as to how general rural development may be promoted in the interim period while the more significant constraints mentioned above are being confronted.     

Ciskei's business reforms in the context of regional development∗

In the May edition of Development Southern Africa (Vol 2, No 2), four papers discussed various aspects of the taxreforms in Ciskei. The general conclusion was that the steps would most probably not greatly assist Ciskei's economic development, in fact the opposite could be true: that the steps would harm the country's economic development

In this reply, Dr DHM Bridgman does not react to any of the papers in particular, but states the case for Ciskei: why the steps were taken and in what frame of reference; what Ciskei's expectations are, and why the previous situation could not continue.     

Sequential maize planting: A cropping strategy for the small farmer*

The influence of planting date and temperatures during growth on the yield and rate of phenologlcal development of maize was investigated. Maize (hybrid Pnr 6428) was planted at 14‐day intervals from mid‐August to early February with the object of developing a cropping strategy which could result in a sustained supply of table maize for the small farmer in central Ciskei. Sequential plantings provided a sustained supply of table maize for 171 days. One hectare of maize, yielding 1,5 tons in central Clskel, used for home consumption, has a current monetary value of R855,36 when costed in terms of saving on purchased maize products, as opposed to R62,02 when sold as grain.

The results indicated that the Ontario system and a modification of the heat stress system of temperature summation predicted time to silking more accurately than the calendar day and standard methods.

The composition of kernels with regard to protein, fat and total digestible nutrients on a dry mass basts was not materially affected by stage of development after the milk stage. A schedule is presented for central Ciskei which proposes a planting time pattern intended to provide weekly harvests of table maize for a period of approximately six months. The increase in acreage required to compensate for premature harvesting and. yield decline due to late planting is also shown.     

Perceived levels of farming skills and problems of small‐scale commercial farmers in Ciskei

The aim of the study was to determine the potential for improved agricultural production among small‐scale commercial farmers at irrigation schemes in Ciskei, not by removing physical constraints but rather by enhancing human resource capabilities. A combination of individual and group interviews was used to examine perceptions of farmers about their farming skills and farming problems. It is apparent from this study that more emphasis needs to be placed on literacy training in the black farming community. Extension officers should also receive substantially more human relations training. There should also be more female extension workers to cater for the needs of female farmers.     

Rural settlement and retail trade business in the Eastern Cape

Rural retail trade shops in the Transkei/Ciskei areas of the Eastern Cape are inherently tied to settlement form and distribution. Spatial distortions in settlement associated with resettlement policies in the past are increasingly being enhanced by unplanned settlement growth. The undeveloped state of the rural economy makes it difficult for most settlements to sustain their inhabitants. Rural shops are trapped in an economy and settlement system not conducive to formal retail trade. The result is that settlement today imposes constraints on the growth of these shops.     

The impact of relocation on social relationships in a ‘betterment’ area in Transkei∗

Agricultural ‘betterment’ schemes affecting Blacks in rural Southern Africa have frequently involved residential relocation and the reorganization of patterns of land use on the one hand, and negative social and economic effects on the other. In this paper the documented social effects of ‘betterment’ in Ciskei and Transkei are reviewed, with a view to predicting the consequences of the current implementation of such a scheme in part of the Willowvale district, Transkei. In both respects an attempt is made to relate the social consequences of betterment to (a) the impact of residential relocation and changing patterns of land use on forms of community organization and co‐operation, and (b) the way in which it is experienced by those affected.     

Participatory research as a tool for community development

In Third World countries, where resources are scarce, social scientists are confronted with the challenge of providing knowledge and services relevant to national development. This paper attempts to address this ‘relevance’ question by exploring the relationship between participatory research (as a social science research paradigm) and community development. The assumption is that people possess indigenous skills and knowledge, but that these need to be harnessed and refined in order that they can be effectively utilised in the planning and implementation of development processes. It is argued that human capacity building and empowerment are core components of participatory research and a prerequisite for appropriate development. A participatory research project in a rural resettlement village in the Ciskei is presented to illustrate the implementation of participatory research as a tool for community development.     

Community gardens as food producing units∗

This article discusses the nature and functioning of community gardens in Ciskei, KwaZulu and KwaNdebele, arguing that these units have often been neglected by agricultural officers. It shows that these units, being indigenous and acceptable to the people, are indeed producing food and also display a great deal of local expertise, to be acknowledged and developed by agencies.     

Provision of accessible marketing and extension services in less‐developed agriculture

An agricultural marketing system is important in assisting farmers to make the transition from subsistence to semi‐commercial and commercial agriculture, but requires a communication system to provide farmers with information on marketing channels and procedures. A study of the marketing system in Ciskei showed that it had not resulted in an increase in marketable surplus among small‐scale subsistence farmers and that the provision of marketing information was inadequate. Recommendations are proposed/or making marketing and extension services more accessible to subsistence farmers.     

Directional trends in selected aspects of rural poverty in the Eastern Cape Province: changes during the first ten years of South African democracy

This study analysed changes in demographic, gender, basic service access and agricultural production patterns in the rural black Eastern Cape Province between 1993 and 2002 in order to offer advice for future poverty alleviation strategies. It used secondary data from national surveys and the 2001 census and stratified the Eastern Cape districts into former Transkei, former Ciskei and commercial farming district sub-regions, in accordance with the pre-1994 developmental scenarios. The results showed that the demographic and basic service access changes were positive, but that pre-existing sub-regional differences had been reinforced, indicating that the populous former Transkei was being marginalised. There has been little development for rural women, agricultural production is almost negligible and employment in commercial farming has declined. Geographically targeted interventions seem to be warranted for the demographic, gender development and basic service accessibility aspects of Eastern Cape rural poverty, but improving rural production appears to be the major challenge.     

Ciskei as a free enterprise zone∗

There are two main thrusts in this paper. First, we are concerned to demonstrate the appropriateness of a free enterprise zone interpretation of Ciskei's recently implemented industrial development policy. Second, we evaluate the likely success of the policy in free enterprise zone terms. The terms consist both of attracting industry to, and generating entrepeneurship within, Ciskei. While welcoming an alternative to what we consider an insupportably expensive decentralisation scheme, we nevertheless conclude with some scepticism regarding the development potential of Ciskei's policy innovations.     

Historical perspective of migration and urbanisation in Whittlesea,Ciskei

This article sets out to explore the role of historical events and politics in the migration and urbanisation of the Whittlesea subregion. The evolution of the independent national state of Ciskei from a Native reserve, bantustan and homeland is analysed. The development potential of the subregion is directly related to the subregion's peripheral location in the national spatial economy and to the regional and urban development of South Africa. The migration and urbanisation process is analysed from the first settlement by the Moravian Mission at Shiloh in 1828 to the present,Whittlesea offers focused settlement opportunities as the first base in a stepwise migration process to the metropolitan core areas. Whittlesea is spatially fragmented owing to different settlement actions, while the isolated areas are functioning independently. Migration from the subregion could be facilitated to influence an equilibrating urbanisation process at the regional and national levels.     

An economic analysis of factors influencing rural‐urban migration in southern Africa

Rural‐urban migration is a serious problem being encountered by developing countries, including South Africa. A single‐equation model is formulated to test hypotheses concerning the determinants, namely personal and household characteristics, of the decision by household heads in Ciskei to migrate. The migration model was expressed as a dichotomous ordered‐response model using logistic regression. The results suggest that the personal characteristics of the household heads had a bearing on the probability of migration. The coefficients of the household characteristics, with the exception of the number of adults in the household, were found to have a statistically weak association with the decision to migrate.     

价值略论与技术资产价值探析

技术资产有别于技术商品。使用价值的形成不专决于生产要素的投入;且同一物品的使用价值随不同的使用目的而呈多样性。因此,价值仅是表达使用价值的度量体系,它可依评价角度的变化表达物品不同属性的内涵。物品价值是物品特定效用与获致该效用之难易性的多元函数。其衡量尺度为当地社会平均劳动时间。技术资产价值通常可区分为:边际价值、市场价值和成本价值。市场价值在特定交易条件下的货币表现即是技术商品的价格。     

Testing the Marshall–Lerner Condition in Kenya

In this paper we examine the Marshall–Lerner (ML) condition for the Kenyan economy. In particular, we use quarterly data on the log of real exchange rates, export/import ratio and relative (US) income for the time period 1996q1‐2011q4, and employ techniques based on the concept of long memory or long‐range dependence. Specifically, we use fractional integration and cointegration methods, which are more general than standard approaches based exclusively on integer degrees of differentiation. The results indicate that there exists a well‐defined, cointegrating relationship linking the balance of payments to the real exchange rate and relative income, and that the ML condition is satisfied in the long run, although the convergence process is relatively slow. They also imply that a moderate depreciation of the Kenyan shilling may have a stabilising influence on the balance of trade through the current account without the need for high interest rates.     

Small‐farm systems research in Ciskei

This paper examines firstly, the problems of agricultural research in developing countries, considers briefly the Farm Systems Research approach and, describes a project recently introduced by Fort Hare University's Agricultural and Rural Development Research Institute. This project will apply a systems research approach to the problems of small farmers in Ciskei, as an alternative to the formal agricultural research approach.     

Synthetic estimates for small areas: problems and results of a simulation experiment

The use of special estimation techniques to develop small area data is described using examples from Hungary. The focus is on the use of synthetic, or SPREE, techniques to increase the reliability of estimates of small-area characteristics. The techniques are tested using a simulation experiment. "Ten variables were selected from the 1980 population census. Their exact values were known. Four different synthetic estimators were tested and compared with the simple direct estimator. The ten variables were studied at both a fairly aggregated level (minor domains) and in great detail (mini domains). The simple direct estimator with the synthetic or composite synthetic estimators shows an improvement of average reliability of 40 to 50 per cent."     

The value of Namibia's forest resources: Preliminary economic asset and flow accounts

A national forest inventory completed in 2004 enabled the development of preliminary forest resource accounts for Namibia. The total woody resources volume was estimated at 257 million m³. Forest products used for fuel, poles, timber and non-timber were included in the accounts, but charcoal production on private land was excluded. Forest use directly contributed some 3 per cent of the gross national product, N$1 billion (US$160 million), and the total direct and indirect economic impact of forest use in the broader economy was some N$1.8 billion (US$288 million). The standing forest assets had an estimated capital value of N$19 billion (US$304 million), comparable with the values for fish, minerals and wildlife. On a national level, stocks are underused. However, some localised over-harvesting occurs, which might be ameliorated through community forest management and trade in products, but capture of resource rent by government should be restricted to commercial forest use.     

国省道养护预制装配式沥青路面结构方案力学分析与设计

为了解决国省道公路养护施工受材料、环境影响较大的问题，提出国省道公路养护预制装配式沥青路面结构的思路。通过利用大型有限元软件ABAQUS建立国省道公路预制装配式沥青路面结构的三维仿真模型，模拟计算车辆荷载作用下路面结构的力学响应，进一步利用正交试验方法，研究了沥青面层厚度、玻璃纤维增强刚性基板GFRP基板(Glass fiber reinforced plastic)厚度、基层厚度、沥青面层模量和GFRP基板模量等对预制装配式沥青路面结构表面弯沉值、沥青面层层底拉应力、沥青面层层底剪切应力及路基顶面压应力的影响，最后对比分析了基层带裂缝与无裂缝模式下国省道公路装配式沥青路面结构的力学响应。通过仿真试验，得到了国省道公路养护装配式沥青路面结构的预制装配块的最佳平面设计尺寸，以及不同参数对装配式沥青路面力学响应影响程度的大小排序和装配式沥青路面结构力学响应随不同参数变化的具体规律。设计合理的国省道公路装配式沥青路面结构受力良好，具有较好的抵抗沥青面层反射开裂的能力。     

Analytical methods for environmental and energy policies

Summary The article focuses on new techniques for effective decision making in the field of energy use and environmental quality. Special attention is paid to the solution of conflicts between different options for economic development. A multi-sector model is constructed which links the use of different energy inputs to production and consumption. This model is further extended with a pollution model which describes the waste discharges associated with a given pattern of energy consumption. Next, substitution between various energy alternatives (induced by price changes resulting from scarcity) are analysed. The conflicts between different options are further analysed by means of learning strategies for conflicting objectives based on the concept of displaced ideals. Finally, the model is applied to Dutch economic-environmental-energy interactions by means of a structural model describing environmental pollution and energy use in relation to production and employment. Some empirical results concerning price reactions from producers induced by external conditions are presented as well.