The role of public pensions in income inequality among elderly households in China 1988–2013

Using data from the Chinese Household Income Project surveys for 1988, 1995, 2002 and 2013, we investigate the role of public pensions in income inequality among households with elderly members across two decades of pension policy reforms. We examine the distribution and role of public pensions at a national level and analyse the evolution of the contribution of public pensions to national income inequality across a much more extended time period than earlier studies, which have generally focused on regional changes over short periods. Our findings suggest that public pensions have become the most important source of income for households with elderly members on average in China, but the distribution of pension income is highly unequal, with a Gini coefficient of 0.74 in 2013. Public pension income has been the largest source of income inequality for elderly households since 2002 and contributed to more than half of total income inequality in the most recent year of the survey. This finding is robust against variations in the income inequality measures used. Additionally, our analysis suggests unequal distribution of pension benefits is the primary driver of pensioners' income inequality. Among several hypothetical policy changes, ensuring a minimum pension benefit for all existing pensioners seems to be the most fiscally effective option in reducing income inequality, with a 0.8% reduction in the Gini coefficient for a 1% increase in public pension expenditure.     

大学生村官政策对农村收入差距的影响研究 ——基于2015年和2017年中国家庭大数据 1324个村社的实证分析

大学生村官作为推动农村发展的重要基层治理力量,在农村集体经济发展、农户增收与脱贫攻坚等方面发挥了重要作用。然而,在新形势下,大学生村官政策是否有助于农村实现共同富裕有待验证。文章基于2015年和2017年"中国家庭大数据库"(CFD)数据,使用固定效应模型实证检验了大学生村官政策对农村收入差距的影响。结果表明:大学生村官促进了农民收入增加,缩小了农村基尼系数,转移性收入、财产性收入和工资性收入的增加构成了大学生村官缩小农村收入差距的主要来源。文章采取替换核心解释变量、被解释变量、替换控制变量与更换估计模型(DID)等方法进行稳健性检验,并采用IV模型克服内生性问题后,结论仍稳健。进一步机制验证发现,大学生村官可通过提升"社会保障力度"与"社会治理水平"的中介路径来调节收入再分配,缩小农村收入差距。大学生村官政策效果存在异质性,其对资本禀赋较强地区(东中部、非贫困村与村支书学历高中以上)的收入差距缩小作用更加明显。可见,大学生村官政策能促进农村地区的共同富裕。政府应做好大学生村官政策与社会保障、社会治理水平建设政策的有机衔接,促使大学生村官更好发挥自身人力资本优势。同时,政府需因地制宜地实施差异化的制度安排,以确保政策效果的普惠性,助力农村共同富裕的实现。     

北京农户对农村生态环境治理的认知差异研究

治理北京农村生态环境能改善农村人居环境,建设美丽宜居乡村.基于北京市3个村的问卷数据,从北京农户的个人因素、社会网络因素和家庭经营因素共14个指标入手,运用Logistic回归分析方法进行研究.结果显示,不同农户的性别、年龄、从事的职业、受教育程度、政治面貌、是否为村委干部、家庭年收入、家庭食品支出占总收入的比重和家庭劳动力所占比重对北京农村生态环境治理的认知具有显著影响.     

基于基尼系数理论探讨构建和谐社会

基尼系数是国际上用来综合考察某国居民内部收入分配差异状况的重要分析指标。改革开放以来,我国的基尼系数逐年攀升。收入分配不均引发了一些社会问题,妥善解决好收入分配与再分配的问题将对构建社会主义和谐社会具有重大的意义。     

Community poverty and inequality in western China: A tale of three villages in Guizhou Province

Using a census survey of households in Guizhou Province, this paper examines the patterns of village poverty and inequality and their major correlates. The results show that poverty incidences vary greatly among villages and inequality is relatively high within villages in these impoverished areas. Although agriculture is still the major source of livelihood in this inland western region, income from local nonfarm jobs and remittance is more unevenly distributed and accounts for the largest share of overall income inequality. Surprisingly, blood donation is another major source of cash income. On the expenditure side, health care was found to be one of the most important sources of inequality. The paper also found that the distribution of assets, particularly land holdings, contributes to overall income inequality.     

基于基尼系数的中日医疗卫生经费区域公平性对比分析

利用基尼系数的等价算法:收入份额法,测算了中国和日本的省际医疗经费的基尼系数及基尼系数边际效应。结果表明,我国人均医疗财政支出的省际差距较大,但差距呈逐步缩小之势。近十年来,我国地域间医疗经费支出的公平性有了较大改善,但相比较日本还有很大的优化空间。根据日本的发展经验,不断完善我国的财政体系,确保地方政府的财权和事权的协调统一,是从根本上保障我国医疗事业的健康可持续发展的必由之路。     

Explaining the changes of income distribution in China

China has experienced one of the most remarkable increases in inequality over the last decade: the Gini coefficient increasing from 25.7 in 1984 to 37.8 in 1992. Using the recent developments in the theory of income distribution [J. Polit. Econ. 101 (1993) 274; Rev. Econ. Stud. 60 (1993) 35.] and a new panel data set about Chinese provincial-urban-level income inequality, this paper finds that inequality increased with the reduction of the share of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in GDP, high inflation, growth, and (less significantly) the increasing exposure to foreign trade. We also find some evidence for the Director's Law: income redistribution tends to shift resources from the rich and the poor to the middle class. We do not find schooling and urbanization to be a significant explanatory factor.     

Globalization and economic inequality in the short and long run: The case of South Korea 1975–1995

We analyse the determinants of the Gini coefficient for income and expenditure in South Korea between 1975 and 1995. In both cases, we do not find support for the Kuznets inverted-U hypothesis. From an economic globalization viewpoint, the opening of goods markets reduces income inequality in both the short run (the Gini coefficient for income) and the long run (the Gini coefficient for expenditure). On the other hand, the opening of capital markets increases income inequality in both the short and the long run, although the latter is not statistically significant. These results suggest that the effect of economic globalization on income inequality has two routes and two different speeds.     

Inequality in China revisited. The effect of functional distribution of income on urban top incomes,the urban-rural gap and the Gini index, 1978–2015

Most analyses explain the increase in China's overall inequality during the reform period principally by means of the expansion of urban-rural income gap. This paper tries to state a relationship between functional distribution of income and China's Gini index. After presenting the main theoretical contributions that clarify the general relationship among those variables, we describe the mechanism that has connected them during the last decades in the Chinese economy. There exists a link between falling wage share, rising urban households' top incomes, urban-rural income gap and the Gini coefficient. These relationships are analysed for both the pre and post-crisis periods. After estimating the main relationships, the paper ends with a discussion on the ability of potential redistributive policies to reverse this pattern of inequality.     

Does the "missing" high-income matter? -Income distribution and inequality revisited with truncated distribution

The issue of missing high-income data in household surveys has been a constant concern among researchers and practitioners when drawing inferences on inequality measures, discussing the relationship between poverty and growth, and examining the relationship between expenditure and income. We introduce a truncated distribution technique to correct the potential bias caused by the missing high-income data. Using 2002/2007/2013 Chinese Household Income Project Survey data and the 2002/2007/2014 US Consumer Expenditure Survey data, we test and estimate three commonly used income distributions: lognormal, Singh Maddala, and Beta II distribution with/without the truncation assumption. We find that the truncated Beta II distribution best describes income distribution in China, while the truncated Singh Maddala best fits the income in the US. The missing high-income in China has a significant but small effect on the Gini and Theil coefficients for 2007, whereas the missing high-income in the US has significant effects for 2007 and 2014. The Gini coefficient increases from the sample mean 0.44 to the simulation mean of truncated Beta II distribution as 0.47 for China in 2007 and increases from the sample mean 0.4422/0.4485 to the simulated mean of truncated Singh Maddala distribution 0.4506/0.4588 for 2007 and 2014 respectively. We also check the impact of missing low-income individuals on inequality assessment and find that the missing low-income data does not appear to underestimate inequality.     

Effects of deductions on the tax burden reduction and the redistribution of the income and resident taxes

The status of the deductions in Japan’s income and resident tax systems is an important policy issue. To analyze this issue, it is essential to have an evidence-based understanding of the situation regarding the effect of deductions on the tax burden reduction and income redistribution. To this end, we use household microdata from the National Survey of Family Income and Expenditure during 1994–2014 to conduct a quantitative evaluation of the burden reduction and redistribution effects of deductions over a 20-year period. Initially, the higher the income group, the higher the burden reduction effect of the deductions (ratio of deductions to gross income). However, the advantageous treatment of the higher income group has been decreasing annually and, recently, the burden reduction effect has reached a proportional structure. Although the system changes in deductions have decreased the tax burden effect due to deductions, these changes have contributed to weakening the effect of increasing the Gini coefficient.     

村庄直选背景下的标尺竞争与农村公共品供给

本文探讨了中国农村的民主直选制度对农村公共品供给的影响及其作用机制。基于南京市第二次农业普查的全部村级数据,我们使用三种不同的指标度量农村公共品投资,在控制了地区虚拟变量、村庄规模、收入水平、村长特征等因素之后,研究发现竞选压力所形成的标尺竞争是影响公共品供给的主要机制,在缺乏对村长是否尽职的充分信息时,临近地区成为衡量本地村长绩效的标尺,因此相邻地区的公共品供给对本地的公共品供给有显著的正向作用。并且,我们还发现当控制了标尺竞争之后,村长的特征变得不再显著,这说明村长能力本身并不影响公共品供给,而是村庄直选使得选举出来的村长更加向村民负责。     

Provision of Residential Solid Waste Management Service in Rural China

Drawing on a dataset covering a large number of randomly sampled villages across China, the present paper examines the issue of residential solid waste management service provision in rural China, Using a logistic model we evaluate the impacts of different factors on service provision at the village level with regard to residential solid waste disposal. These factors include the environmental pressures caused by residential solid waste generation, the financial capacity of the Villagers＇ Committee, village elections and the individual characteristics of village heads. We find that living density, village per capita income, the ratio of irrigated land, and the per capita profit submitted by village enterprises to the Villagers＇ Committee all have positive impacts on service provision. Moreover, village heads who are popularly elected by villagers are more likely to provide services that satisfy voters＇ demands.     

Export Dependence and Sustainability of Growth in China

This paper examines the contribution of exports to growth in China since the early years of the decade. It is estimated that, despite a high import content ranging between 40 and 50 percent, approximately one‐third of Chinese growth before the global crisis was a result of exports, due to their phenomenal growth of some 25 percent per annum. This figure increases to 50 percent if spillovers to consumption and investment are allowed for. The main reason for excessive dependence on foreign markets is underconsumption. This is due not so much to a high share of household savings in GDP as to a low share of household income and a high share of profits. It is argued that China can no longer maintain such high growth rates for its exports, and, therefore, needs to turn to consumption‐led growth by expanding the share of wages and household income in GDP and accelerating public spending in social infrastructure.     

Income inequality and ethnic cleavages in Malaysia: Evidence from distributional national accounts (1984–2014)

In this paper, by combining information obtained from national accounts, household surveys, and fiscal data, we document the evolution of income inequality in Malaysia, not only at the national level (for the period of 1984–2014) but also by ethnic group (for the period of 2002–2014). To our knowledge this is the first attempt to produce inequality measurements of Malaysia, which are fully consistent with the national accounts. Our research shows that despite Malaysia’s exceptional economic growth rate, its growth has been inclusive. For the period of 2002–2014, the real income growth for the bottom 50 % is the highest (5.2 %), followed by the middle 40 % (4.1 %), the top 10 % (2.7 %) and then the top 1 % (1.6 %). However, while average growth rates are positive across all ethnic groups (Bumiputera 4.9 %, Indians 4.8 %, and Chinese 2.7 %), the highest growth of real income per adult accrued to the Bumiputera in the top 1 % (at 8.3 %), which sharply contrasts the much lower growth rate of the Indians (at 3.4 %) and negative income growth rates of the Chinese (at −0.6 %). Despite the negative growth rate, the Chinese still account for the lion’s share in the top 1 %. In 2014, 60 % of the adults in the top 1 % income group are Chinese, while 33 % Bumiputera, and 6 % Indians. We conclude that in this period, Malaysia’s growth features an inclusive redistribution between income classes, but with a twist between racial groups.     

Towards a better measure of income inequality in Indonesia

Indonesia has experienced significant economic growth in recent years (on average, 5% in 2000–08), but many people are still living in poverty. Income inequality, as measured by the official Gini coefficient, has also increased. This paper evaluates household income and income inequality in Indonesia, assessing both market and non-market income to reach a more accurate measure of how actual income affects living standards. We find that if household income considers non-market income, income distribution is significantly more balanced, the coefficient of income inequality falls from 0.41 to 0.21 and the income share of the population's poorest deciles increases more than fivefold. The results suggest that market income alone is a misleading measure of income distribution in Indonesia.     

Do International Remittances Affect Poverty in Africa?*

Abstract: International remittances flowing into developing countries are attracting increasing attention because of their rising volume and their impact on recipient countries. This paper uses a panel data set on poverty and international remittances for African countries to examine the impact of international remittances on poverty reduction in 33 African countries over the period 1990–2005. We find that international remittances—defined as the share of remittances in country GDP—reduce the level, depth, and severity of poverty in Africa. But the size of the poverty reduction depends on how poverty is being measured. After instrumenting for the possible endogeneity of international remittances, we find that a 10 percent increase in official international remittances as a share of GDP leads to a 2.9 percent decline in the poverty headcount or the share of people living in poverty. Also, the more sensitive poverty measures—the poverty gap (poverty depth) and squared poverty gap (poverty severity)—suggest that international remittances will have a similar impact on poverty reduction. The point estimates for the poverty gap and squared poverty gap suggest that a 10 percent increase in the share of international remittances will lead to a 2.9 percent and 2.8 percent decline, respectively, in the depth and severity of poverty in African countries. Regardless of the measure of poverty used as the dependent variable, income inequality (Gini index) has a positive and significant coefficient, indicating that greater inequality is associated with higher poverty in African countries, much in conformity with the literature. Similar results were obtained for trade openness. In the same vein, per capita income has a negative and significant effect on each measure of poverty used in the study. Our results also show that inflation rates positively and significantly affect poverty incidence, depth and severity in Africa. In all three poverty measures, the dummy variable for sub‐Saharan Africa is strongly positive, and strongly negative for North Africa. The policy implications of these results are discussed.     

公共财政视阈下的村级基础设施建设资金供给透视——基于浙江台州5村的道路硬化工程调查

农村道路建设是农村基础设施建设的重头戏,是社会主义新农村建设中财政投资的重点领域。通过对浙江台州5村的道路硬化工程筹资方式进行调查,从调查各村的收入支出着手分析不同村采取不同筹资方式的原因,并探讨村级道路硬化工程资金筹集中存在的问题,最后根据调查结果提出建立以政府为主导,多种形式筹集农村道路建设资金的社会参与机制。     

Villages where China's ethnic minorities live

This paper investigates how ethnic minorities in rural China are faring compared with the ethnic majority. The village is the unit of analysis and large surveys for 2002 are used. Minority villages in northeast China are found to have a somewhat better economic situation than the average majority village, but minority villages in the southwest are clearly faring worse. Industrialisation, inputs in agricultural production, stock of human capital of the labour force, wage level on the local labour market as well as indicators of path dependency are all found to affect the economic situation of a village. Location is the single most important circumstance working against a favourable economic situation for minority villages in the northwest and particularly the southwest. Low village income results in long-distance migration for many ethnic minorities, but for some minorities their ethnicity hinders migration.     

广西公共财政农业支出和农村居民收入的实证研究

采用灰色关联分析方法,对广西公共财政农业支出和农村居民收入增长之间的关系进行实证研究。结果表明:广西公共财政农业支出额度与促进农村居民增收效率不匹配,即支援不发达地区资金中用于农业的支出额度较小,但其促进农村居民增收的作用最强,支农支出所占份额最大而其促进农村居民收入的作用很弱,广西公共财政农业支出绩效处于较低水平层次。最后,提出大力增加农业支出、调整农业支出结构的建议。